bread cutouts
toast cutouts
crackers
melba toast
profitroles (tiny unsweetened cream puff shells)
toasted pita wedges
tortilla chips or cups
tiny biscuits
polenta cutouts
miniature pancakes

canape spreads

can be as simple as softened butter or cream cheese but cam be highly flavoured.
spreads can be divided into three categories

flavoured butters
flavoured cream cheese
meat or fish salad spreads

canape garnish

any food item that is places on top of the item to enhance the presentation of the canape

vegetables, pickles, and relishes
fish and shellfish
meats
cheese
hard cooked eggs

flavouring items

lemon, caviar, shrimps, parsley, mustard, olive, tarragon, horseradish, shallot, chive, pimento, scallions, anchovy, blue cheese, curry, capers.

Cocktails:the term cocktails is used not only for alcoholic bevrages nad juices but for a group of appetizers made with seafood or fruits. usually served on a bed of crushed ice.

examples are

shrimp cocktail
crab cocktaill
lobster cocktail
flaked white fish cocktail
fruit cup

all served with an appropriate sauce and garnish.

Relishes: these cover two categories of foods:

raw vegetables

called crudites which in french means "raw"
the most popular vegetables are celery, carrots and radishes.
vegetables should be crisp and well chilled
use the freshest, most attractive vegetables possible

pickeled items

items like dilled cucumber pickeles, gherkins, olives, watermelon pickles, pickeled peppers, sliced beets.
all items should be well chilled and attractively presented

Dips:

savory dips are popular accompaniments to potato chips, crackers, and raw vegetables
a proper consistency is important for any dip. proper consistency means thickness at serving room temperature.

Miscellaneous Hors d’Oeuvres: a great variety of foods can be served as hors d'oeuvres: any foods that can be eaten with the fingers and or speared with a tooth pick

Antipasto:

italian cuisine is particularly rich in hors d'oeuvres of antipasti. as they are called. many menus of italian style restaurants offers a cold plate of antipasti, or assorted flavourful titbits.

can include:

cured meats

seafood items

cheeses

hard cooked eggs

relishes

mushroom and other vegetables cooked dry beans.

Bruschetta:

bruchetta is a slice of italian bread, tossed,, rubbed with crushed garlic, and drizzled with olive oil.

served with toppings, the most common of which is seasoned diced fresh tomatoes.

Tapas:

spanish tapas are small food items intended to be eaten with wine, usuallly in bars or taverns.

in sppanish, it literally means "lid"

Caviar:

These are roe of sturgeon

Roe- processed fish eggs

Sturgeon- Particular species of fish found in Caspian Sea or black sea

Types-

· Grainy Caviar

· Pressed Caviar

Grainy caviar can be further classified into-

Beluga- white in colour

Sevruga- dark in colour

Ossetra- Black in colour

it isold in weight basis. Almas is the costliest among all the caviars which costs 23000 dollar per kg.

Cover- Caviar Knife/ Fish Knife on the right side of the cover, caviar pot on a bed of crushed ice in a caviar plate

Accompaniment- Blinis/Toast ( blinis is a savoury Russian pan cake made of buckwheat flour), sieved egg yolk, chopped egg white, chopped shallots and segments of lemon

Amuse Bouche:

it is a tiny appetizer or hors d'oeuvre offered, compliments of the chef.
usually in more expensive restaurants.
nearly anything can be served as amuse boudhe: salads, soups, canapes, fish, and vegetables.

↧

Tobacco Processing | Cigar | Cigarettes'

July 20, 2021, 9:44 pm

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Tobacco is the name given to the plant and cured loaves of several species of Nicotiana which may be used, commonly after aging and processing in various ways for the purpose of smoking, chewing, snuffing and extraction of nicotine. Nicotine and related alkaloids of tobacco furnish the habit forming and narcotic effects which account for general worldwide use.

History: Tobacco was first cultivated by the Indians of North and South America when Christopher Columbus and other early explorers arrived in America, they found natives using tobacco much in the same manner as it is used today. As per Indians it was supposed to possess medicinal properties. Jean Nicot the French ambassador at Lisbon, in whose honour the genus Nicotiana was named, is said to have sent seed of

N. tabacum to the queen of France, Catherine de Medicis. From Europe tobacco was taken largely by Portuguese and Spanish sailors, to the furthest comers of the known world.

Manufacturing

Harvesting and curing: Tobacco is harvested from 70-130 days after transplanting by one of the two methods.

1. the entire plant is cut with the stalk split or speared and hung on a tobacco stick
2. The leaves are removed at intervals as they mature.

burley tobacco

oriental tobacco

Add caption

virginia tobacco

Curing

• Curing and subsequent aging allow for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves, and gives a sweet hay, tea, rose oil, or fruity aromatic flavor that contributes to the "smoothness" of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar, which glycates protein, and is oxidized into advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), a caramelization process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer. Levels of AGE's is dependent on the curing method used.

• Tobacco can be cured through several methods, including:

• Air cured tobacco is hung in well-ventilated barns and allowed to dry over a period of four to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the tobacco smoke a light, mild flavor, and high in nicotine. Cigar and burley tobaccos are air cured.

• Fire cured tobacco is hung in large barns where fires of hardwoods are kept on continuous or intermittent low smoulder and takes between three days and ten weeks, depending on the process and the tobacco. Fire curing produces a tobacco low in sugar and high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are fire cured.

• Flue cured tobacco was originally strung onto tobacco sticks, which were hung from tier-poles in curing barns (Aus: kilns, also traditionally called Oasts). These barns have flues run from externally-fed fire boxes, heat-curing the tobacco without exposing it to smoke, slowly raising the temperature over the course of the curing. The process generally takes about a week. This method produces cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high levels of nicotine.

• Sun-cured tobacco dries uncovered in the sun. This method is used in Turkey, Greece and other Mediterranean countries to produce oriental tobacco. Sun-cured tobacco is low in sugar and nicotine and is used in cigarettes.

fire curing

sun curing

air curing

Grading

After curing, the leaf may be piled in a bulk for a time to mature before it is prepared for sale. Type of leaf and local custom determine the fineness of grading. Leaf may be graded' position on the plant, colour, size, maturity; soundness and other quality elements.

Processing

After purchase and any necessary regrading, many large leaf tobaccos are redried - dried then given back the exact amount of moisture needed for aging before being packed in cases or hogsheads. The first stage in turning leaf into tobacco is to remove midrib and crush into leaves.

VARIETIES OF TOBACCO

1.     Latakia: It is a strong and spicy variety of tobacco made from plants grown in Northern Cyria, Cyprus and other Eastern countries. This is smoke cured by the fire of the Asiatic oak, which turns it into a dark shade. Sometimes cow dung or camel dung is used as fuel for the fire. Therefore it has a rich and heavy taste with aroma having smoky characteristic. Latakia is an important ingredient for many English mixtures like e.g.
Dunhill 965
Early Morning
Red Rapperee
Black Mallory
However the percentage should not exceed from 40-50% as excess use would tend to make it dry and harsh.

2.    Perique: It is a red burley type of tobacco grown and processed in Louisiana, New Orleans. This variety is used to increase the strength of pipe mixture. It is blended with Virginia generally e.g. Dunhill Elizabethan Mixture

3.    Pipe Tobacco: Virginia is the most popular type used in pipe tobacco. As it is mild in nature and has highest level of sugar which gives a light taste after blending e.g. Dunhill, Rattray, Marlin Flake
The tobacco factory is magnificent and well ventilated building. The cured leaves are spread out on the floor in a lightly compressed mass; they are too dry for immediate use. Bundles of tobacco are separated and put in steam heated chambers in which the temperature is raised to anything between 120°F and 160°F. Then the stalks and midribs are removed by hand or machine. The stripped leaves are left in ordinary heaps for about 24 hours during which they become thoroughly impregnated with additional moisture which renders them supple and usable.
"The blending of various mixtures is in the hands of experts who know the exact proportion in which stronger tobaccos like Latakia and Perique should be blended with lighter tobacco.
When different brands have been made up, the leaves are placed in machine which compresses them in the form of a hard cake. They are then shredded finally or coarsely with knives or shredding machines. Any excess moisture is removed by panning or stoving, a different process which brings out aroma. After panning tobacco is spread out evenly on trays to enable it to cool down to the temperature of air following which tests are carried out to ensure that the moisture content does not exceed the legal limit 32%.
Most of today's popular pipe mixtures are composed almost entirely of Empire tobacco, the Rhodesian leaves being mainly flavoured..

4.    Cigarette Tobacco: In the manufacture of cigarettes Virginian separately or in carefully blended mixtures. As in pipe tobacco, bundles from warehouses are received and stripped of midribs by machine or hands. The leaves then go to a machine which cuts them into fine shreds. Excessive moisture is removed from the tobacco and also the impurities. The tobacco is left for a day or two to mature following which it goes to a cigarette manufacturing machine. The papers for the cigarettes are unloaded from a disc and enter the machine and receive the tobacco flowing in a constant stream. Paper and tobacco move together. The paper is rolled round the tobacco and gummed at the end. The continuous tube of cigarette then runs beneath knives which cuts it into cigarettes of required lengths and stocks them neatly.
The cigarettes are not packed immediately but are left to dry for 24 hours. The machines used for packing are equally ingenious as those which make cigarettes. So human is this equipment that a carton or packet incompletely filled is automatically rejected. The tins if required for export are vacuum sealed.
Cigarettes making requires high degree of skill.

5.      Burley: It is one of popular variety of tobacco, contains no sugar. Therefore it is dry and has full aroma. It easily absorbs flavourings and is used in many aromatic flavours. It bums slowly e.g. are

Blue Edge Worth

Old English

Half and Half

Danish Mcbaren

CIGAR

A cigar consists of three parts

1.     Filler
2.  Binder
3.    Wrapper

The filler is the inner core that forms the body and shape of the cigar.

The binder is the leaf in which the filler is wrapped to form what is known as cigar bunch. The wrapper or outer covering of cigar consists of a ribbon leaf rolled spirally around the cigar bunch. Wrapper leaf must be strong, elastic and silky in texture and of even colour and it must possess good flavour and burning properties. It is the most expensive leaf used in cigars.

Note: Filler and binder together are called Bunch.

Processing: The cured leaf is fermented or sweated before use in the cigar in order to reduce the content of harsh and bitter compounds and to develop the mild and aromatic properties of the leaf.

Wrapper leaves, which receive the greatest care are tied on bundle of 40-50 leaves. Heat is generated in bulk which aids in fermentation.

Banding and Packing: Modern packaging of cigar demands that band be placed on the cigar or printed on the protective covering which is usually cellophane. This preserves the natural humidostatic condition of the cigar and is accomplished by machine at the rate of 30000 cigars daily cellophane tinfoil or any other combination of similar wrapping.

Colour classification- The main colour classifications of cigar are:

CCC	CLARO, LIGHT
CC	COLORADO –CLARO, MEDIUM
C	COLORADO-DARK
CM	COLORADO MADURO, VERY DARK
M	MADURO, EXCEPTIONALLY DARK

SIZE AND SHAPE DESCRIPTION

CORONA	A STRAIGHT SHAPE CIGAR WITH ROUNDED TOP ABOUT 5 ½ INCHES LONG
PETIT CORONA	ABOUT 5 INCHES LONG
TRES PETIT CORONA	ABOUT 4 ½ LONG
HALF A CORONA	ABOUT 3 ¾ LONG
LONSDALE	SAME AS CORONA ABOUT 6 ½ INCHES LONG
IDEALES	A SLENDER TORPEDO SHAPED CIGAR, TAPERED AT THE LIGHTING END ABOUT 6 ½ INCHES LONG
BOUQUET	A SMALL TORPEDO SHAPED CIGAR
LONDRES	A STRAIGHT CIGAR, ABOUT 4 ¾ INCHES LONG
PANATELA	IS A LONGISH THIN CIGAR OPEN AT BOTH ENDS USUALLY BBOUT 5 INCHES IN LENGTH
A CHEROOT	A THIN CIGAR, OPEN AT BOTH ENDS USUALLY THICKER AND STUBBIER THAN PANATELA

Service of cigars

Cigars should be offered in their own boxes to allow the customer to choose his own, The type of cigar will be printed on the box. The customer having chosen the cigar he wishes the waiter should offer to remove the band. A cigar cutter or piercer should be used to cut the cigar. The waiter should then offer to light the cigar of customers.

Note: Cigar should be offered at the end of the meal with coffee. In case of nonchalant guest offer a box with assorted sizes and strength.

cigar cutter

Storage of Cigars

Cigar should be kept in a moist place and at even temperature. That's why it is best to keep cigars and cigarettes in a glass case with humidifier. The cigars remain best in their own cedar boxes because it has unique quality of releasing moisture when needed and absorbing when not required in surrounding areas. The advantage of keeping cigar in cedar wood boxes is that mild fragrance of cedar wood mingles well with cigar. Remember not to place cigars near items which emanate its flavours or fragrance or absorb the flavour and fragrance of surrounding e.g. milk will pick up tobacco flavour and cheese will impregnate its mouldy flavour to cigar.

Note: The ideal temperature of storage of cigar is 16-18°C and a relative humidity required is 65-70%

humidifier

BRAND NAMES

American- Robert burns panatela, Corona, Invincible, Perfecto.

Brazil- viajantes

Danish- Apostolado grand corona, Rothschild, Havana Henryclay, Royal coronation

Romeo Juliet- Churchil romeo, Montecristo.

Holland- Cuba cabana Habana, Permanent

Cuban- Bolivar(full flavor), Cohiba(medium to full flavor), Punch, Romeo y julieta, Trinidad, Montecristo.

CIGARETTE

The term cigarette, denoting a paper wrapped roll of finely cut tobacco is an adoption of the Spanish Cigaro. Its original meaning was little cigar but usually cigarette tobacco is of a different types, generally milder.

The success story of American mass production and standardizing product, brand development goes with the success of cigarette story. The cigar making has been by and large slow, handmade cottage industry. At the most small machines are used and the popularity remains few and far between. On the other hand, same tobacco ravaged the world in form of cigarette gave enormous revenue to state exchequer as tax in the form of excise and gave huge amount of employment, gave typical boost to unproductive arid land, agriculturists and made multiple multimillionaire and multinational, last not but not the least cancer epidemic. Cigarettes are produced by a special kind of inferior kind of tobacco produced in and around Virginia branded as Virginia tobacco which is less fermented, less aromatic, flue cured, light coloured. Cigarette being most popular variety of tobacco have had its worth ill effect also unable to banish this product with biggest global lobby, people have tried to disinfect it by using different types of filter to start with charcoal, cotton and other kinds of natural and artificial fibers and filaments. They also use supporting chemicals to absorb tar, nicotine and various other poisonous fumes emanated from burning of paper and tobacco. The latest innovation in the filter tipped business is use of menthol cool and various other aromatic substances to enhance smoking pleasure for less addict. Cigarettes have various types of cut to allow it to burn rapidly or slowly. The V cut of tobacco actually permits specks of tobacco continuously smouldered without burning. There are spiral cuts for rolled tobacco which are smaller rolls that require slower smouldering otherwise it will burn ' out. Most cigarettes are produced in assembly lines massive machines from cutting tobacco into different cuts till packing them in boxes and cellophane all at one go. Cigarettes come in different length and tax excise depends on the size of the cigarette rather than the brand.

types of cigarette

NON FILTER	NO FILTER LENGTH: 2 ¾ INCHES
KINGS	HAVE FILTER CONTAIN MORE TAR AND NICOTINE LENGTH: 3 ½ INCHES
LENGTHS	HAS LONG FILTER THAN KINGS LENGTH: 3 ¾ INCHES
MENTHOLS	IT COMPRISES MENTHOL
CLOVES	A BLEND OF TOBACCO AND CLOVE SPICE HAS NO FILTER LENGTH: 3 ½ INCHES
HERBAL	CONTAINS NO TOBACCO BUT HERBS LIKE GINSENG, MARSHMALLOW, MINT AND PASSION FLOWER.

BRAND NAMES

GERMAN- LORD FILTER TIP

AMERICAN- MARLBORO, WINSTON, LUCKY STRIKE

DANISH- BROADWAY

FRENCH- GITANES

ENGLISH- BENSON AND HEDGES, DUNHILL

RUSSIAN- BLACK RUSSIAN, ORIGINAL TURKISH

Service of Cigarettes

Cigarettes should never be carried by hand to the customer but placed on a salver or a plate. The packet should be opened (pulling out a tew cigarettes partially). The waiter should stand by with a match or lighter to light the cigarette. It should be made sure that the ashtray is on the table. Ashtrays should never be allowed to collect too much ash, it is the waiter's duty to exchange them frequently for fresh ones. These days, there is an important programme for the Hospitality Industry called "courtesy of choice" introduced all over the world in various hotels to accommodate in harmony those who smoke and those who don't smoke.

1. Filter made of 95% cellulose acetate.

2. Tipping paper to cover the filter.

3. Rolling paper to cover the tobacco.

4. Tobacco blend.

↧

Major grape varieties of France, USA, Germany, Italy and other countries

July 20, 2021, 9:54 pm

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Grapes

Aleatico

aleatico grape

Aleatico (ahl-ih-at-ik-oh) is an Italian variety found in most areas, with the largest plantings in Tuscany and the island of Elba. It is also grown in Corsica and it is a minor variety in California. It has a muscat flavour and is somewhat like a black form of Muscat à petits grains.

In Italy, Aleatico is used to make a highly regarded sweet, ruby coloured, muscat wine. Aleatico can be used to make white wines and fortified wines and could be tried as a substitute for Muscat à petits grains where there are problems with that variety.

Alvarelhao

alvarelhao grape

Alvarelhao (ahl-vah-rel-oh) was recommended, along with Bastardo and Touriga, by

Mr F. de Castella, former Government Viticulturist in Victoria, for the production of port. However, in the variety classification used in the Douro Valley in Portugal, Bastardo and Touriga are rated as very good but Alvarelhao is rated as only reasonable. So it is perhaps not surprising that less Alvarelhao than Touriga and Bastardo has been planted in Australia, with a few small plantings in north-east Victoria and southern New South Wales only. There appears to be very little of this variety grown outside Portugal. It is not clear whether it is present in California, as the variety imported from there as Alvarelhao proved to be actually Touriga.

Alvarelhao is lower in colour and tannin than the other port varieties and although widely planted in Portugal, does seem to be more suitable for red wine rather than port. It has been reported as producing red wines with good acidity and balance.

Barbera

barbera grape

Barbera (bar-beer-ah) is the leading wine grape of Italy, grown mainly in Piedmont. It is used in wines of controlled appellation, sometimes alone and sometimes mixed with other varieties. Argentina grows some Barbera. It was popular in California in the 1970s, reaching 8600 ha in 1977, with around 4000 ha currently. There are 141 ha of Barbera planted in Australia.

_ Wines from Barbera have good colour, tannin and acidity, and a distinctive varietal character which may not be immediately acceptable to Australian wine-drinkers. When aged in oak the wines can be complex and full-bodied with a delicate bouquet. In Italy it is mostly used for making full-flavoured dry red wines with earthy character, soft tannin and ripe currant flavour, but sweet red and sparkling red wines are also made from it.

Bastardo

bastardo grape

Bastardo (bas-tah-doh) is considered one of the better port varieties in Portugal, although it is not as widely grown as Touriga or Tinta Amarella. It is also grown under the name of Trousseau in the Jura region in eastern France. It is probably one of the ‘port sorts’ in South Africa and there may be a little in California and South America, but not enough to be recorded separately. The exact area of planting in Australia is uncertain. There is a small quantity in South Australia as Cabernet Gros, a little in north-east Victoria and nearby in New South Wales called Bastardo. Some plantings called Touriga in New South Wales are also Bastardo.

_ Under most Australian conditions this potentially sweet, full wine is best suited for fortified wines. The fruit ripens early and attains a high sugar concentration, which increases even further as the berries wilt. It does not provide much colour in the wine but will combine with other varieties that provide colour and flavour.

Bianco d’Alessano

bianco d'alessano grape

Bianco d’Alessano (be-ank-oh dal-essah-noh) is a late-ripening white wine grape variety from the Puglia region of south-east Italy with substantial plantings in the province of Taranto near Bari. Bianco d’Alessano produces yields of about 30 tonnes/ha in the warm irrigated regions of Australia. The juice is sweet and neutral in flavour.

The wines tend to be neutral in character and have been given only average scores by tasting panels.

Biancone

biancone

Biancone (bee-yan-kowhn) has the distinction of giving the highest commercial yield of any variety in Australia. Almost all is grown in the Riverland of South Australia. The variety comes from Corsica, where its excellent production has led to one of its names

being Pagadebiti, literally ‘payer of debts’. Small areas of Biancone have been grown under the name of Grenache Blanc Productif and it was probably imported into Australia under this name.The Biancone of the island of Elba is thought to be the same variety but it does not appear to have become established in any other countries.

_ Biancone with its high yields has little character, and this soft and fruity wine is mainly used for distillation or bulk production in the Riverland. There is some evidence that it can produce a distinctive dry white wine in cooler areas

Bonvedro

bonverdro grape

Bonvedro (bon-ved-roh) is the Portuguese name of this variety, which is also grown in north-eastern Spain as Cuatendra. It possibly also occurred in France as an obscure variety and may have arrived in Australia as part of a large collection, such as Busby’s. In this way it could have become confused with Carignan, the name generally used for Bonvedro in Australia.There may also have been confusion with another variety from north-eastern Spain,Miguel de Arco, as the vines grown under this name in Australia also seem to be Bonvedro. Small quantities of Bonvedro are grown in Australia, mostly in South Australia and a little in New South Wales and Victoria.

_ Wines made from Bonvedro in Australia have a pleasant varietal character but are soft and lacking in tannin, and in the past were unfavourably compared with other varieties of wine with more colour and tannin. Increasing interest in lighter red wines may encourage a reappraisal of this position

Bourboulenc

bourboulenc

Bourboulenc (bor-buh-lahnk) is a recommended variety throughout Mediterranean France and is found mainly in the lower valley of the Rhone. It is an approved variety for wines of controlled appellation such as Chateauneuf-du-Pape and Cotes du Rhone. It appears four times, under different names, among Busby’s imports into Australia in 1832, but has not survived in any of the official viticultural collections. It is found only as odd vines in old vineyards in Great Western and Rutherglen and possibly elsewhere.

_ In France, standard dry white wines from Bourboulenc are delicate and lightly aromatic with some varietal character developing with bottle age. Wine from very ripe grapes has a more special character. In practice Bourboulenc is usually harvested and fermented mixed with other varieties.

Cabernet Franc

cabernet franc

Cabernet Franc (ka-ber-nay frahnk) is an important variety of the Bordeaux area of France.There have been small plantings in recent years, but Cabernet Franc generally

occurs in Australia as odd vines in plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon, particularly in north-east Victoria where it sometimes occurs to the extent of more than one vine in ten. In France, it is also grown in the Loire Valley and is now recommended throughout the entire south, including Corsica. In Italy it is regarded more highly than Cabernet Sauvignon and recommended in more provinces. The Cabernet varieties, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon, are important in eastern Europe and South America but they are not always recorded separately. Cabernet Franc, with 1427 ha recorded in 2002, has not achieved the same recognition as Cabernet Sauvignon in California. 834 ha of this variety were harvested in Australia in 2003.

_ Cabernet Franc makes a red wine of excellent colour and rich flavour with good tannin. These wines have a pronounced varietal character and because of their good tannin they age particularly well. They can be distinguished from the wines of Cabernet Sauvignon and the presence of Cabernet Franc may be partly responsible for the

special character of Cabernet wines from north-east Victoria.

Cabernet Sauvignon

cabernet sauvignon

Cabernet Sauvignon (ka-ber-nay so-vinyohn) comes from the Bordeaux region of France and is the major variety in some of the best wines of the Medoc area. It is also prominent in Chile and has increased rapidly in recent years in California (30 754 ha in 2002), Australia (28 871 ha in 2003) and South Africa. In Italy it is a minor variety recommended only in the extreme north. It is probably more important in eastern Europe and Argentina.

_ The excellent quality of the wines of Cabernet Sauvignon is well-known and the grape is very widely grown. The wines are deep purple in colour and have high tannins and a full rich flavour with a pronounced varietal character, which is very intense when the vines are grown under cooler conditions. They show complex black currant and other small berry characters, but if harvested before full maturity they can show excessive herbaceous aromas. With their high tannin they require aging and are often blended with Shiraz, Cabernet Franc or Merlot to produce magnificent wines. The best wines can take 20 years to reach their peak.

Cañocazo

canocazo

Cañocazo (kan-o-kah-zo) is a minor Spanish variety, not listed for use in any wines of controlled appellation and not authorised for planting in any part of Spain. Scattered small plantings still exist in the sherry area and it is one of four varieties used as parents in a breeding program at the national research station at Jerez; the others are Palomino, Pedro Ximenez and an authorized variety called Garrido. It was probably brought to Australia in early collections from the sherry area and was formerly grown under the names of Palomino and Pedro. In Australia, Cañocazo is grown mostly in South Australia with a little in the Murray Valley Irrigation Areas of New South Wales and Victoria.

_ From its origin Cañocazo should be suitable for fortified wines and for distillation. The fruit is neutral in flavour, somewhat reminiscent of Doradillo but ripening much earlier. Viticulturally it is more reliable than Pedro Ximenez and perhaps also Palomino, but does not have the same reputation for wine quality.

Carignan

carignan

Carignan (kah-rig-nan or kah-rin-yon) is best known as a French variety although it

is of Spanish origin, taking its name from the town of Carinena in Aragon. It is a prominent variety in several areas of Spain but has not made much headway in other European countries. The formerly large area of Carignan planting in Algeria has been considerably reduced since 1962. It is still an important red grape variety in California where it is known as Carignane, although the area has declined and currently stands at around 2445 ha. It is grown to a lesser extent in Chile and Argentina. In 2003 there were 51 ha of Carignan growing commercially in Australia. It should not be confused with Bonvedro, which was incorrectly called Carignan in South Australia.

The variety is more susceptible to fungal diseases than most other wine grape varieties and needs a higher level of light for full photosynthetic efficiency. In Australia, therefore, it should do best in the inland irrigation areas.

_ Carignan gives fairly acid red wines of moderate colour and high tannin.The wines can lack fruit and softness and are sometimes bitter. In France and Spain it is often crushed with varieties such as Grenache, Cinsaut and Tempranillo to give very pleasant wines ready for drinking when young.

Chambourcin

chambourcin

Chambourcin (sham-bour-sin) is acomplex hybrid produced in France by the private breeder Joannes Seyve (JS26-205). Its parentage has not been published but it would be based on the better Seibel hybrids and involve up to eight of the US species of Vitis. It was officially released in 1963. It is being grown commercially in the eastern US and was introduced into Australia by CSIRO in 1973. Chambourcin shows very good resistance to downy and powdery mildews and to phylloxera, both against damage to the root system and g alling on the leaves

_ Wines from Chambourcin have drawn some favourable comments even in France, where the planting of hybrids is heavily discouraged. In Australia these aromatic wines have shown good ruby colour and acidity and have scored well in blind tastings.

Chardonnay

chardonnay

Chardonnay, (shah-don-nay) rather than the former name of Pinot Chardonnay, is

now the official name for this variety in France and California, two places where it

is widely grown, to avoid confusion with Pinot Blanc. In France most of the plantings are in the Burgundy and Champagne regions. In California it was not widely grown until selected clones of high yield became available. Expansion since then has been rapid and there are now around 40 000 ha planted. Chardonnay is grown in many other

countries but it is sometimes difficult to know how much confusion there may be

with Pinot Blanc. There have been small plantings of Chardonnay in Australia for many years, but only relatively recently has that the variety has become popular, with plantings now in excess of 24 000 ha.

_ Chardonnay is used in the fine white wines of Burgundy and Chablis, and is one

of the varieties used in Champagne. In California it is recommended for the cooler areas. The most suitable areas for the variety in Australia have still to be determined, but it appears to be possible to make high-quality wines in a wide range of Australian climates. Australian wine-makers make less use of oak in the fermentation and maturation of Chardonnay. It is a wine capable of many different characters – fruity, floral, and sometimes acid – and blends well with wines such as Semillon and Colombard.

Most Chardonnay wines develop quickly in the bottle and change substantially

over a few years. The best wines are well balanced, soft and full-bodied with complex melon and dried peach characters. Except for the very best, most of these wines are designed to be consumed within two to five years.

Chasselas

chasselas

Chasselas (shas-el-as or shas-ah-lah) is an important table grape in Europe with extensive plantings for this purpose in France and Italy. It ripens early but is popular in Europe even when other varieties are available. The pleasant flesh texture outweighs the presence of seeds in the berries, which are rather small for a table grape. It is used as a white wine grape in cool areas and may have originated in Switzerland where it is the principal white wine grape. There are plantings in Alsace, Germany, Austria and eastern Europe. About 100 ha are recorded in Australia. In Victoria, which has about half the area, it is used for wine. In Western Australia and New South Wales, which share the rest, a fair proportion of the crop is marketed as table grapes. The variety is sometimes known as Golden Chasselas or Chasselas Doré, but Palomino has been mistakenly called Golden Chasselas in California and this mistake may have carried through into Australia.

_ Chasselas is an old grape variety and in cooler areas is used to produce pleasant, light, white wines with no pronounced varietal character. In hot areas, the fruit is too low in both sugar and acid to be satisfactory for winemaking

Chenin Blanc

chenin blanc

Chenin Blanc (shen-in blohnc or shan-in blohnc) is the official name for this variety

in France, but it is often called Pineau de la Loire. It is the main variety of the Loire

Valley. In California there was a rapid increase in area planted, until the early 1990s.The variety called Pinot Blanco in Chile and Argentina is Chenin Blanc.The

largest area of Chenin Blanc is in South Africa, where it is planted under the name of Steen. The variety seems to have been brought to Australia under several names and its identity lost. In Western Australia it was formerly incorrectly known as Semillon, and in South Australia it was wrongly named Albillo or Sherry. 748 ha of Chenin Blanc were recorded in Australia in 2003.

_ Chenin Blanc has a good acidity and is used very successfully in South Africa and California for well-balanced dry white wine with good body and sometimes a floral aroma. The best wines can have an elegant honey bouquet of peaches and apricots, and age well. In favoured parts of the Loire Valley it can be affected by noble rot, and produces excellent luscious sweet wines. It is also used in some very good sparkling wines.

Cienna

cienna

Cienna (sih-en-nah) is one of three new

varieties of wine grape varieties developed by CSIRO and granted Plant Breeders Rights in 2000. Cienna, Rubienne and Tyrian are all progeny of a cross between the Spanish variety Sumoll and Cabernet Sauvignon, made in 1972 by the late Allan Antcliff at the Merbein research station. Each of the new varieties was selected using criteria including good (grape juice) sugar: acid ratios, low pH, good colour and flavour and adequate yields. The aim was to produce high quality red varieties suited to Australian conditions. The best few varieties were extensively trialed and evaluated by industry panels and under a range of climatic and cultural conditions.

_ Wine made from Cienna can be described as having medium to dark colour, with herbaceous berry aromas and cherry flavours and good tannin structure.

Cinsaut

cinsaut

Cinsaut (sahn-soh) (sometimes spelt Cinq-saou or Cinsault) is a variety from the

Mediterranean region in the south of France. Some Cinsaut is registered for the

purpose of table grapes but its main importance is as a recommended variety for improving the quality of the wines from the south of France. In South Africa it is called Hermitage. It was formerly grown quite widely in Algeria and, being the black variety best adapted to the hot dry conditions there, plantings of it may not have been as drastically reduced as those of other varieties. It is grown in Italy under the name of Ottavianello in the province of Brindisi. In California, the small planting (63 ha) is also called Black Malvoisie. In Australia, some is grown in South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales. It has been called Blue Imperial in north-east Victoria, Black Prince at Great Western and often Ulliade or Oeillade in other areas.

_ By itself Cinsaut gives fruity wines which have an attractive red colour and pleasant fruity bouquet but are low in tannin. It is generally used to add smoothness in conjunction with varieties such as Grenache and Carignan in France, and Primitivo in Italy. In France it is used in many wines of controlled appellation including Cotes du Rhone, Tavel, Chateauneuf-du-Pape, Cassis and Bandol. It can produce excellent rose wines.

Clairette

clairette

Clairette (klair-reht) is an important variety in the south of France. It was also the most important white variety in the French colony of Algeria before the country gained independence, with an estimated 10 000 ha. lt does not appear to be grown in Europe outside France and the only major plantings elsewhere appear to be in South Africa and Australia, nearly all in the Hunter Valley of New South Wales. In France it is sometimes known as Blanquette and this name is used in New South Wales. (The so-called Blanquette of South Australia is a clone of Doradillo.) Two other varieties in France

have also been referred to as Clairettes – Ugni Blanc (synonym, Trebbiano) is sometimes called Clairette Ronde in both France and Italy, and Bourboulenc has been called Grosse Clairette or Clairette Doree.

_ Oxidation occurs very readily during wine-making with Clairette, and ‘rancio’ wines made with overripe grapes are still covered by the French-controlled appellation regulations. Clairette also imparts a distinctive varietal character in the absence of oxidation and is used in many appellation wines, both still and sparkling. It is sometimes used alone but more often in combination with other varieties: some red wines contain up to 20% Clairette.

Colombard

colombard

Colombard (kohl-om-bard) is a variety from the Bordeaux region of France. Although it has fallen from favour in France in recent years, with a decline in plantings, it has seen a remarkable expansion in California, where the plantings are about 14 200 ha. It is also

grown in South Africa. There were a number of introductions into Australia from California and in 2003 the planted area of Colombard here was 2700 ha.

_ In France, Colombard is regarded only as an accessory variety for white table

wine. The fruit will remain on the vine in good condition after it is ripe and retain a

good acidity, but if left too long may give an unpleasant character to the wine. It

produces a brandy of high quality, but not superior to that from Folle Blanche or

Saint Emilion (Trebbiano). In California, because of its high acidity, Colombard is

considered suitable for blending to produce quality white table wines that are

crisp and fruity. It is also used for producing sparkling wines.

Crouchen

crouchen

Crouchen (kru-shen) is a French variety which has now practically disappeared

from France. It is still a recommended variety in the south-west near the Pyrenees and appears on the list of varieties which can be used in the wines of Bearn. Crouchen was used in the excellent ‘vin de sable’ produced near Capbreton before the afforestation of the Landes displaced the vineyards during the twentieth century. The name used there for the variety, Sable Blanc, may well correspond with the ‘Sales Blanc’ introduced into New South Wales by James Busby in 1832.

The variety now seems to be grown only in South Africa and Australia. In South Africa it came to be called Riesling, and seems to have been introduced from there to the Adelaide area as Riesling. It spread from there to the Clare and Riverland areas before the mistaken identity was discovered. It was then called Clare Riesling, until finally identified as Crouchen. It was also brought into the Barossa Valley, where it was mis-identified as Semillon, and taken from there to the Sunraysia area as Semillon before it was identified as Clare Riesling.

_ Crouchen does not adapt successfully to as wide a range of climates as Rhine Riesling does. It does not ripen in very cool areas and loses its character in a hot climate. In areas to which it is adapted, it produces pleasant dry white wines with a delicate varietal character that can improve with ageing.

Dolcetto

dolcetto

Dolcetto (dol-chet-oh) is an important variety in the Piemonte region of Italy. Unlike some of the other red varieties of the region, which are also grown in other parts of Italy, Dolcetto is regarded as having a special adaptation limited to Piemonte. There is very little Dolcetto in other countries, with only a few hectares in both Argentina and Australia. Australian plantings are confined to South Australia and Victoria. The area in South Australia, where the variety has been correctly named, has decreased over the years, while in Victoria, where it has been confused with Malbec, there have been a few small new plantings which were intended to be of Malbec.

_ In Italy, Dolcetto is used alone in the denomination of origin wines Dolcetto d’Acqui and Dolcetto d’Ovada, which are well-regarded wines of medium body and characteristic quince and almond aromas. Wine from Dolcetto can be velvety with a fine bright-red colour, which may lack intensity if the vines are heavily cropped or grown in unsuitable conditions. There appear to be situations in the cooler areas of Victoria that are well-suited to the variety.

Doradillo

doradillo

Doradillo (dor-ad-il-loh) is a variety which seems to have found its greatest acceptance in Australia. It was imported under that name from Spain by James Busby in 1832. It was also taken to South Africa and further importations were made to Australia from there. It does not seem to be a commercial variety in South Africa and it is not recorded separately in Spanish plantings. It may perhaps be included under Jaen, a name said to have been used for more than one variety in Spain. Jaen that was imported to Merbein from the Estacion de Viticultura y Enologia et Requena in Valencia province has proved similar to, but distinct from, Doradillo.Of the 145 ha of Doradillo in Australia, about three-quarters grows in South Australia and the rest in New South Wales and Victoria.

_ In Australia, Doradillo is used mainly for distillation and for the production of Sherries. The variety yields consistently well but the fruit matures late and is quite neutral in flavour.

Dourado

dourado

Dourado (du-rah-doh) is a variety from the Tagus Valley of Portugal. Its full name is Gallego Dourado. In South Africa it is planted as (False) Pedro. lt is likely that it was brought from South Africa to Australia as it is known here as Pedro, sometimes Pedro Ximenez in error, but more usually distinguished as Rutherglen Pedro. It may also have come in James Busby’s collection in l832 under some other name or unnamed, as it occurred unidentified in vineyards which might be sourced from Busby’s collection.Dourado can be found as odd vines in most of the older wine-growing districts. Appreciable numbers of vines are mixed with other varieties at Mudgee and Great Western and small plantings are present at Roma, in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area and north-east Victoria.

_ Because of the confusion with Pedro, the variety has probably been mostly used in fortified wines in Australia but it can be successfully used for pleasant dry white wines.

Durif

durif

Durif (dur-if ) has been known as a variety for only about a century, and owes its

name to Dr Durif who propagated it in the Rhone Valley in France around 1880. It

resembles Peloursin and may be a seedling or a sport from this variety. It was popular in France as it appeared to have some resistance to downy mildew. However, it is no longer recommended or authorised and its planted area in France is declining. It is sometimes known as Pinot de l’Ermitage but is in no way related to the true Pinots. Another name, Syrah Forchue, refers to its tendency to produce forked shoots. The Petite Sirah of California may be a mixture of Durif and Peloursin, although the proportions are unclear. All clones imported to Australia have proved to be Durif.Vineyards examined have shown roughly equal numbers of the two varieties – the total area of plantings in 2003 was 331 ha.

_ Durif produces red wines of intense colour and high tannin, requiring long ageing. Some excellent full-bodied wines have been produced in north-eastern

Victoria.

Farana

farana

Farana (far-ah-nah) is the Algerian name for this variety. It is grown in other countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and is known as Planta Pedralba in Spain Mayorquin in France, Beldi in Tunisia and Damaschino in Sicily.The major plantings were in Algeria and Spain, but as wine grape plantings have declined in Algeria since independence, Spain probably now has the largest area. In Australia a little is grown in the Barossa Valley, where it was formerly confused with Trebbiano.

_ In Spain, Farana is classed with Palomino and Pedro Ximenez as a variety for making dessert wines of high quality. In North Africa it is sometimes used as a table grape, but in the cooler mountainous areas of Algeria it is used in making superior dry white wines.

Folle Blanche

folle blanche

Folle Blanche (fol blonsh) was best known as the variety used in making the brandies of Cognac and Armagnac.The use of rootstocks, which became necessary after the phylloxera invasion, accentuated its susceptibility to Botrytis; in affected areas its replacement by Saint Emilion (syn.Trebbiano) and, to a lesser extent, Colombard is well advanced.This is reflected in the decrease in planted area in France from 15 800 ha to 3600 ha between 1958 and 1988. However, it is maintaining and even slightly increasing its area in the lower valley of the Loire, where it is used to make a wine exported to Germany for making sparkling wines, or a white table wine, high in acid and low in alcohol, for which there is some demand. In California it accumulates enough sugar to make a good table wine, yet retains enough acid to be excellent for sparkling wine. However, expansion is restricted by problems with bunch rot. The variety has not been grown commercially in Australia. Plantings which might have been Folle Blanche have proved to be the variety known as Sercial in Australia.

_ The white wines of Folle Blanche are usually pale, thin and very acid with a fresh and fruity character. In France, brandy made from Folle Blanche is regarded as the best. The Cognacs produced have excellent perfumed bouquet

Furmint

furnimt

Furmint (fer-mint) is a famous white grape variety but there seems to be only one major planting in the world – in Hungary, for making the special wines of Tokaj-Hegyalja. Furmint has been taken to many other countries but does not seem to have been planted extensively in any of them. It has probably been in Australia since Busby’s import of 1832 but is found only as odd vines in plantings of other varieties, including a mixed planting at Great Western dating from 1868. A variety imported from Italy as Furmint has proved to be another, as yet unidentified, variety.

_ In Hungary Furmint is used in about equal proportions with another variety, Harslevelu. The famous Aszu wines are made by a complex process in which the berries dried by noble rot are separated and prepared for sweetening the wine made from the rest of the fruit. These are very fine wines, comparable with the best of the noble rot wines from other countries, but the dry and sweet wines made by simple fermentation in years when there is not enough noble rot for making Aszu wines also show excellent bouquet and flavour.

Gamay

gamay

Gamay (ga-may) ranks after Carignan, Grenache,Merlot, Cinsaut, Cabernet Sauvignon and Aramon among the red wine grapes of France. A little over half the total planting is in the Beaujolais region, the rest is scattered through Burgundy and the Loire Valley. Gamay is also grown in the north of Italy and neighbouring areas in Yugoslavia. It has not been grown in California and there has been confusion in Australia because varieties introduced from California as Gamay proved to be wrongly named. The Gamay Beaujolais imported in 1962 was in fact a clone of Pinot Noir with an upright growth habit, and the Napa Gamay imported in 1968 was Valdiguie. Clones of the true Gamay

have since been imported from France and a single vine was found in an old planting at Great Western.

_ Wine from Gamay should be light and fresh, bright-red in colour and low in tannin. They are ready for bottling and drinking without ageing. The best wines have a violet, purple colour with high acidity and a fruity aroma. As with Pinot Noir, the best wines are likely to come from the cooler areas. The original Gamay variety has fruit with colourless juice. Since 1800, mutants with coloured juice have been selected: first, Gamay de Bouze, from which came Gamay Freaux and Gamay de Chaudenay. Gamay Freaux has the most intense colour but is reputed to give the poorest-quality wine. The others are nearer the original Gamay in both the colour and quality of their wines.

Graciano

graciano

Graciano (grah sih-ahn-oh) is primarily a Spanish variety. Although it is not one of the major varieties used in bulk wines, there are a few thousand hectares of Graciano in the Ebro Valley where, along with Carignan and Tempranillo, it is an important component in the appellation wines of Rioja and Navarra. In France the variety is called Morrastel and is recommended in the south, but little remains, possibly because of its relatively low yield. The area of Graciano in Australia is very small. The variety should not be confused with the so-called Morrastel of South Australia, which is really Mataro, nor with the Mourastel imported from California, which is Carignan. In Algeria, large areas of Mataro were mistakenly called Morrastel. Xeres imported from California proved to be Graciano.

_ Graciano produces a red wine that is strongly coloured and high in acid and tannin, and ages well. The wines are full-bodied, of high quality and with a delicate bouquet.

Grenache

grenache

Grenache (gren-ahsh) is a very important variety in southern Europe.There are large plantings in Spain, where it is known as Garnacha. In France the area of Grenache

was around 87 000 ha in 1988, and has no doubt continued to increase at the expense of the high-yielding but poor quality variety Aramon. It is an important variety on the island of Sardinia, where it is called Cannonao. Grenache is also grown in Sicily and the southern Italian mainland under the names of Granaccia and Alicante.Other than Europe and remnant plantings in Algeria, the only appreciable areas are in California and Australia. Australia has 2322 ha, most in South Australia and the rest fairly evenly divided between New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia.

_ The wines of Grenache are low in colour by Australian standards and age rapidly. Nevertheless, Grenache is regarded as a premium variety in France if it is not cropped too heavily. It is used alone only in rosé and fortified wines. For red table wines it is usually combined with varieties such as Carignan and Mataro, which provide acid and tannin, and Cinsaut which gives smoothness. Shiraz, Clairette, Mourvedre and other varieties may also be included to increase complexity.

Harslevelu

harslevelu

Harslevelu (hahsh-lev-ee-loo) is an old white grape variety from the Tokay region of Hungary, where it is blended with Furmint to make the famous sweet wines of the region. Both of these varieties seem well-suited to the concentrating effect of Botrytis cinerea – ‘noble rot’ – and produce wines that more than rival the wines from the Sauternes region of France.

_ The juice is sweet and aromatic with a spicy perfume that is an important part of the famous Tokay sweet dessert wines when blended with Furmint. Dry Harslevelu wines can also produce full flavoured and aromatic wines in the south of Hungary.

Jacquez

jacquez

Jacquez ( jak-ez or jah-kay) is one of a group of varieties to which the species name Vitis bourquiniana or V. bourquina has been given. The original members, including Jacquez, appear to be natural hybrids between V. aestivalis and V. vinifera. Jacquez, generally known as LeNoir in the US, is thought to have originated in Georgia or the Carolinas but has not been widely grown in that country. It became very popular in France after the vineyards were devastated by phylloxera, but was banned from the production of wine for sale about 50 years ago. It may still be used as a rootstock and remains popular for this purpose on suitable soils in South Africa. In Australia, where it has been called Troya, annual production has been about 100 tonnes, mostly in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area with a little in the Hunter Valley.

_ Red wine from Jacquez has a deep colour and a strong, unusual flavour, less unpleasant than those of the hybrids of V. labrusca.

Malbec

malbec

Malbec (mahl-bek) (sometimes spelt Malbeck) is an approved synonym for Cot, the official French name of this red grape variety. Another synonym used in some areas is Auxerrois.Most is grown in Gironde, some in the departements to the east of Bordeaux, and some in the Loire Valley. It is permitted in wines of controlled appellation in all these areas and is the principal variety in Cahors. It does not seem to have spread elsewhere in Europe and there is only a little in California, but it is one of the mostimportant black varieties in Argentina. There is a significant amount in Chile. In Australia at least two other varieties, Dolcetto and Tinta Amarella, have sometimes been incorrectly called Malbec, but in 2003 plantings were recorded at 488 ha.

_ With moderate yields in cooler areas, Malbec makes a balanced red wine of good colour which has a less intense varietal aroma and is softer than Cabernet wines. It combines well with the other Bordeaux varieties to give wines designed for earlier maturity rather than very long holding. In the Loire Valley it is sometimes used alone to give rosé wines with strong fruit character; in Cahors it is used with up to 30% of Semillon or three other minor varieties to give a very deep-red wine which is aged for several years before bottling.

Marsanne

marsanne

Marsanne (mah-san) is a minor French variety from the Hermitage area in the Rhone Valley. There is also a little growing in the Valais in Switzerland under the name of Ermitage. About 265 ha are planted in Australia, the vast majority in the Goulburn Valley and north-eastern Victoria and the rest in New South Wales.

_ In France,Marsanne used alone has the reputation of producing light white wines with little varietal character, which age very quickly. The addition of a proportion of another variety, Roussanne, is considered to improve quality.Wines from Marsanne in A ustralia appear to have more body and character, but the major plantings include an appreciable proportion of other varieties, which may take the place of the Roussanne. Some of the wines made from Marsanne in the past have been rather heavy; now they are light and fruity with a perfumed fragrance.

Mataro

mataro

Mataro (mat-ahr-roh) is another variety from southern Europe, and needs more warmth than Grenache. In Spain it is also called Monastrell or Morastell. In France, apart from small plantings under the name of Balzac in the Cognac area, where the fruit does not ripen properly, it is confined to the warmest areas of Provence, where it is called Mourvedre. It was a very successful variety in Algeria but it is not clear how much of the 20 000 ha formerly planted has survived. There are about 264 ha in California. The 1092 ha in Australia are in South Australia, New South Wales and Victoria. The name Balzac is used at Corowa, and at Great Western the variety is called Esparte.

_ Mataro alone gives red wines that are deep-coloured and rather neutral in flavour, and can be very astringent. This could explain why it has not been very highly regarded in Australia. However, it combines well with other varieties such as Shiraz and is an important component in some European wines. Mataro wines age well.

Melon

melon

Melon (meh-lohn) is the official French name for this white grape variety and is used in Burgundy where it originated. However, very little is now grown in this area, compared with the lower valley of the Loire, where it is known as Muscadet. In California, where it is erroneously called Pinot Blanc, there were about 650 ha in 1992. It was imported into Australia from California in 1962 under the name of Pinot Blanc so care is needed to ensure that it is not confused with the true Pinot Blanc, which was imported from Europe more recently.

_ The white wines of Muscadet produced in the Loire Valley are dry and fresh with a good bouquet, and are highly regarded as wines to be drunk young. Good wines have also been produced in California, where a high content of tannin in the skins has been noted and special care in wine-making has been recommended to prevent darkening.The wine can improve with ageing on lees

Merlot

merlot

Merlot (muhr-loh) is the principal black variety of the Bordeaux area and is also recommended in the south of France. The area planted in France increased dramatically between the late 1950s and the late 1980s.The variety has been introduced into other European countries and replaced local varieties. In Italy it is now recommended in more provinces than any other single variety, although it is far from surpassing Italian varieties such as Barbera and Sangiovese in area or production. In California there were almost no plantings before 1970, but by 1992 the area of Merlot was approximately 4050 ha and ten years later had increased to 21121 ha. It is a minor variety in Chile and Argentina. No early introduction into Australia has been

traced. There were 10 350 ha of Merlot in production in Australia by 2003.

_ The red wine of Merlot has a distinctive plummy flavour clearly related to that of the Cabernets. It has good colour with a plummy flavour but it is softer and ages more quickly than Cabernet wines. Although it can be used alone, it is more often blended with the Cabernets in the finest wines of controlled appellation of the Bordeaux region.The wines can be full-bodied and well balanced with supple tannins and with a

bouquet reminiscent of black currants.

Meunier

meunier

Meunier, (meuh-nyay) or Pinot Meunier as it is often known, is a sport of Pinot Noir and could have been established independently on a number of occasions. It has recently been shown that Pinot Meunier is a chimera. The greatest area of the variety is in France. As with Pinot Noir, the area has been expanding, nearly all in the Champagne area where it is the major variety. In Germany it is grown mostly in Wurtemburg, where it is known as Schwarzriesling. In Australia, where the name has sometimes been translated as Miller’s Burgundy, the 120 ha of plantings are confined to a few small areas in Victoria. In l960 there was a very small quantity in New Zealand, but it has since lost favour and very little remains.

_ In France Meunier is used for champagne, blended with Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. In Australia it is used to make attractive, light, dry red wines.

Monbadon

Monbadon (mohn-bah-don or mohnbah- dn) comes from France and is found mainly in the Bordeaux and Cognac areas, with a little in Provence. It is no longer recommended or authorised, and has declined in area. It is a minor white grape variety (approximately 602 ha) in California, where it is known as Burger. In Australia there is a little Monbadon in the Corowa–Wahgunyah area of north-east Victoria.

_ In France and California Monbadon is used only as an accessory variety, giving light, neutral wines which can be blended with wines from more distinctive varieties. At Corowa–Wahgunyah it accumulates enough sugar to be useful for dessert wines.

Mondeuse

mondeuse

Mondeuse (mohn-deuhs) is a minor variety in eastern France and its area has been decreasing slowly. In California there was a more rapid decrease, to about 40 ha in 1980. Although the variety is called Refosco in California it is different from any of the varieties known as Refosco in Italy. In Australia a small area of Mondeuse is grown commercially in north-east Victoria.

_ The red wines of Mondeuse are notable for their colour and tannin. In California they are used for blending. The limited quantity of this spicy wine in Australia produces wine which is usually combined with other varieties.

Montils

montils

Montils (mohn-tils) is a minor white grape variety of the Cognac area of France, mainly grown close to the coast. Although it remains an authorised variety for the area, plantings have declined considerably. In Australia there are small plantings in the Hunter Valley, some as Montils and some under the name of Aucarot or Aucerot. This name is a corruption of Amarot, a variety introduced by James Busby in 1832, but, as happened in other cases, the plants were confused; Amarot is a large black grape.Montils was also tried experimentally in north east Victoria but the Aucerot in this area appears to be a different, as yet unidentified, variety.

_ In France,Montils is considered to make a white wine comparable with that of Colombard. At Merbein,Montils usually ripens about 2 weeks later than Colombard and has excellent low acidity. Yields of the two varieties are comparable. Wines from Montils over 4 seasons scored at least as well as those from Colombard, and Montils was one of the most promising varieties in trials in north-east Victoria. In France it has produced

excellent brandies.

Moschata Paradisa

moschata paradisa

Moschata Paradisa (mos-kah-tah par-ahdihsa) is the name by which this white grape variety is known in Australia and so far it has not been traced to any variety grown or described overseas. It is known to have been planted commercially only at Mudgee although there may be odd vines elsewhere. The early maturity and rapidity with which the fruit then deteriorates, combined with the softness and slightly unusual flavour of the berries, suggest that there may be a little Vitis labrusca in the ancestry of the variety. On the other hand the leaves show no sign of any species other than V. vinifera.There is some resemblance to the Malvasia Bianca imported from California but the two varieties are distinct.

_ While care is needed to harvest the fruit as soon as it is ripe Moschata Paradisa can be used to make a pleasant varietal white wine .

Müller-Thurgau

muller thurgau

Müller-Thurgau (muhl-ah toor-goh) was introduced into commerce in about 1920, and by 1970 passed Sylvaner and Riesling to become the leading wine grape of Germany. It is also grown in central Europe, particularly Czechoslovakia, Austria and Hungary but, apart from a very small area in Alsace, not in France or in North or South America. It comes from a cross made at Geisenheim in 1882 by Dr Müller, a Swiss from Thurgau, who returned to Switzerland taking his promising seedlings with him. In 1913, when its great potential was obvious, it was brought back to Germany for testing. It is supposed to be a cross of Riesling and Sylvaner, but recent DNA typing showed that Sylvaner could not have been a parent. From its character, some experts think that it is a cross of two Riesling clones, but DNA typing also showed that although Riesling was one parent of Müller-Thurgau, it could not have been both. In Switzerland and some other countries it is called Riesling × Sylvaner in deference to its breeder’s wishes. In Luxembourg it is called Rivaner. There has been very limited planting of the variety in Australia.

_ The white wine from Müller-Thurgau, although it has little acid and lacks the very distinctive bouquet of Riesling, has a definite aromatic, muscat character and is

well-regarded among German wines. In warmer regions the wines tends to lack acid and finesse.

Muscadelle

musscadelle

Muscadelle (mus-kah-del) is a white grape variety of the Bordeaux region, where it forms a minor component in the famous wines of Graves, Barsac, and Sauternes etc. There are currently around 174 ha of this variety in Australia where it is also known under the name of Tokay. Sauvignon Vert introduced from Californiahas also proved to be Muscadelle. Sauvignon Vert is no longer favoured in California. There also appear to be plantings in Hungary, Romania and the Ukraine. Muskadel in South Africa is a different variety, Muscat à petits grains.

_ In France, Muscadelle gives a white wine with a marked bouquet somewhat reminiscent of muscat and only a small proportion is needed to achieve the desired degree of character. In California Sauvignon Vert is used on its own, and has an objectionable bitterness on the palate. The fruit ripens early and can attain very high sugar content, however, the wines tend to be sensitive to oxidation. The use of very ripe, partially raisined grapes for a sweet fortified wine seems to be unique to Australia and is very successful.

Muscat à petits grains

muscat a petits grains

Muscat à petits grains (mus-kat ah-petigran) is the official French name for this variety, and means simply Muscat with small berries. There are three colour variants – white, rose and red. The two coloured forms mutate readily from one to the other and to white, but there appear to be two types of white – one is stable and the other mutates to the coloured forms. The white form seems to predominate in Europe. In Italy the official name is Moscato Bianco, and there are plantings in other Mediterranean countries. The name Muscat Blanc in California seems to indicate that only the white form is used there, and the plantings in Argentina are listed as Moscato d’Asti, among the white varieties. In South Africa most of the Muskadel, as the variety is known there, are of the red form. In Australia there are 560 ha. A little more than half is the red form and the name Brown Muscat used in north-east Victoria is very appropriate. The fruit ripens early and, if left on the vine, wilts to give a very high sugar concentration.

_ The red form of Muscat à petits grains does not have enough colour to make a red wine, but this fragrant and fruity variety with its relatively high acidity can be used to make a range of excellent wines, from highly flavoured sparkling wines to luscious fortified wines. It can also be used to accentuate the flavour of dry white wines made from other varieties.

Muscat Gordo Blanco

muscat gordo blanco

Muscat Gordo Blanco, (mus-kat gorh-doh blohn-koh) the name used in Australia for this variety, comes from Spain and translates as ‘fat white muscat’.The name best known internationally would probably be Muscat of Alexandria.The variety is also called Moscatel de Malaga in Spain, Muscat de Setubal in Portugal, Zibibbo in Italy and Hanepoot in South Africa. Although widely grown, it does not cover a very large area in any country. Australia has about 2500 ha. The fruit can attain a very high sugar content in the warmer areas but is then low in acid and has a high pH.

_ Muscat Gordo Blanco is a true multipurpose grape. It is used as a table grape, dried for raisins, which may be deseeded for use in baking and confectionery or kept as clusters for dessert use (muscatels), and crushed for unfermented grape juice as well as for wine. In the Australian wine industry it is used for fortified sweet wines of the type

known as cream sherry, and for white table wines, often in conjunction with a more neutral variety such as Sultana.

Muscat Ottonel

muscat ottonel

Muscat Ottonel (mus-kat oht-ohn-el) is an early ripening white grape variety grown in Austria, Germany and in Alsace in France. There is very little grown in Australia. Muscat Ottonel was propagated from a seedling by Robert Moreau and its parents are uncertain although probably Chasselas × Muscat de Saumur.

_ In Australia both yields and sugar levels have been low. It is not as highly flavoured or fragrant as Muscat à petits grains, giving the wine an attractive, delicate muscat flavour that has been rated highly by taste panels.

Nebbiolo

nebbiolo

Nebbiolo (neb-ee-ol-oh) is a red wine grape variety from the Piedmont region of northern Italy around Turin. Two famous wines made from the variety are Barolo and Barbaresco, named after villages in the Monferrato hills near Alba. Further north in the Novaro region the variety is known as Spanna. There are only about 5000 ha of Nebbiolo in Italy, but its reputation far exceeds its volume. There are small plantings of the variety in Switzerland, Uruguay, Argentina and California, the latter reporting 80 ha in 1997. In Australia, around 17 vineyards list plantings but the total planted area is very

small.

_ Wines made from Nebbiolo in the most favourable situations in Piedmont are high in alcohol, acid and tannin, and are traditionally aged for several years in large oak casks. This is followed by further years of bottle-ageing to develop intense flavours of roses, raspberries and violets. Less-favourable sites can produce softer wines with lower tannin levels. It is remarkable that a variety which produces some the best red wines in the world has not found a major place in other growing regions. Finding a suitable microclimate for Nebbiolo in Australia could make an interesting challenge for an aspiring young winemaker.

Ondenc

ondenc

Ondenc (on-denk or on-dohnc) is a rather obscure French variety, which has been defined relatively recently (late 1980s). It was grown in different areas of southwestern France under different names without being recognised as the one variety. The name Ondenc comes from an area near Toulouse. In Australia it has been known as

Sercial in South Australia and as Irvine’s White in Victoria. There were 23 ha of Ondenc in Australia in 1990. It was probably among the many varieties called Piquepoule collected by James Busby in 1832 and the Victorian plantings may come from that source. The identity was lost and the name Irvine’s White commemorates the vigneron at Great Western who made the first substantial plantings. It appears in the Rutherglen

collection as Blanc Select, so was presumably imported at some time as Blanc Selection Carrière.

_ In Armagnac Ondenc is used for brandy; elsewhere in France it is used for white table wines. It is regarded as too neutral to be used on its own and is generally combined with varieties of more character such as Sauvignon Blanc. Its use in sparkling wine seems to be a very successful Australian innovation.

Orange Muscat

orange muscat

Orange Muscat (orong muskat or or-ongh mus-kat) is an old variety which has been used as a table grape in Europe. Its French synonym, Muscat Fleur d’Oranger, translates as Orange Blossom Muscat, doubtless derived from the subtle aroma of its juice. Other synonyms are Muscat Primavis and Muscat de Jesus. It has not been widely planted worldwide. There were 66 ha in California in 2002 and probably about the same in Australia. One source suggests that its origin is Syrian.

_ The variety is sensitive to oidium (a type of vine mildew) and the berries split easily. It has been used commercially in Australia to produce high-quality white wines with a distinctive orange blossom bouquet.

Palomino

palomino

Palomino (pal-oh-mee-noh) is an important Spanish white grape variety, providing about 90% of the grapes used for sherry. In South Africa it was formerly known as White French and is an important and widely grown variety. The areas elsewhere are rather small. In California, where about 300 ha are planted, it has sometimes been erroneously called Golden Chasselas; in France it is known as Listan; in Australia it has sometimes been known as Paulo. It should not be confused with the so-called Common Palomino in Australia, which is in fact Cañocazo. 92 ha of Palomino were harvested in Australia in 2003.

_ Palomino is better suited to the production of fortified wines than table wines, and is a preferred variety for premium dry sherries in Australia. In Spain it produces fino sherries that have a pale straw colour, a delicate bouquet and are of very high quality.

Pedro Ximenez

pedro ximinez

Pedro Ximenez (ped-roh zim-e-nes or pedroh him-ay-nes) comes from Spain, where

there are substantial plantings of this white grape variety, mostly in the Estremadura, Andalusia and Levant regions. Although it is a permitted variety for sherry, only a small proportion of the plantings are in the sherry area. It is the most important recognised white wine variety in Argentina. In California there were less than 100 ha by 1976 and no new plantings had been made for many years. Around 68 ha of Pedro Ximenez are

planted in Australia. For best results it needs a reliably dry period for ripening and harvest, which Australian viticultural areas cannot provide.

_ In Spain the variety is used for both dry and sweet fortified wines such as Montilla-Moriles,Malaga and Jumila. Sweet wines can be produced by adding alcohol before fermentation is finished or by adding mistelle (fortified grape juice) or grape juice itself to fully fermented wines.Wines are also made from grapes partially sun-dried after harvesting. In Australia it provides excellent sherry material; in cooler areas it can also give good, fresh, neutral table wines suitable for blending with more highly flavoured

varieties.

Petit Verdot

petit verdot

Petit Verdot (pe-ti vehr-doh) is a minor red grape variety from the Bordeaux region of France. It has long been part of the varietal mix in Bordeaux but has probably never exceeded 5% of the total planting. The area planted in France decreased from 685 ha in 1958 to 338 ha by 1988, and then underwent a minor revival to reach 380 ha by 1994. It is grown mainly on the left bank of the Gironde from Margaux to Saint-Estephe, and produces a high quality wine. In Argentina two varieties are grown under the name Verdot: one is a clone of Malbec, the other is the true Petit Verdot. It is also planted in Chile, and there were 359 ha of Petit Verdot in California in 2002. In 2003 the total area harvested in Australia was 1337 ha, a rapid increase from less than 100 ha in 1998. There has been increasing interest in the variety, with some excellent wines produced. _ It is the last variety to be harvested in the Medoc region and the red wines produced from it are deep-coloured and spicy. Because of their high acid, tannin and alcohol levels these are full-bodied wines and age well.

Pinot Gris

pinot gris

Pinot Gris, (pee-noh grih) like Pinot Noir, is grown in many countries including France, mostly in Alsace, in Germany where it is known as Rulander, and in northern Italy. It is also grown throughout central and south-eastern Europe, one of its more interesting names being Szurkebarat (Grey Friar) in Hungary. In 2002, 1637 ha of Pinot Gris were harvested in California. Pinot Blanc is probably the least-grown of any of the Pinot family. The situation has been confused because Chardonnay has often been called Pinot Chardonnay or even Pinot Blanc Chardonnay and so has come to be called Pinot Blanc in some areas. In South America Chenin Blanc has been wrongly identified as Pinot Blanc, while in California the variety Melon has been wrongly called Pinot Blanc. The true Pinot Blanc has only recently been imported into Australia and earlier plantings by that name would be either Chardonnay or derived from the Californian Melon. There is some true Pinot Blanc in France, mainly in Alsace, in northern Italy and a little in Germany and central Europe.

_ Pinot Gris differs from Pinot Noir only in having much less pigment in the skin of the berries, which can vary from greyish-blue to pink to white. Depending on the skin colour, it can be used to make a deep golden wine that at first sight may suggest an oxidized white wine. As with colour, the style can vary from dry crisp whites to rich sweet wines such as the Tokay of Alsace, which is highly regarded in Europe. Pinot Blanc differs from Pinot Noir and Pinot Gris only in having no pigment in the berry skin. It makes a distinctive, fairly full-bodied dry white wine with less varietal character than Riesling or Chardonnay.

Pinot Noir

pinot noir

Pinot Noir (pee-noh nwah) is the variety used in the superior red wines of Burgundy and one of the principal Champagne varieties. Plantings in France increased from 8500 ha to 17 300 ha between 1958 and 1979 and reached 22 000 ha by 1988. It is one of the few black varieties that ripens early enough to succeed in the coolest viticulture areas, such as those of Germany and Switzerland. It is grown in practically every wine-producing country, usually not extensively and only in the cooler areas such as northern Italy or the coastal valleys of California. There were nearly 10 000 ha in California in 2002, and in 2003 Australia had 4270 ha. Pinot Noir is a very old and variable variety and we can see its progression from vines similar to the wild grapes that grew in Europe before cultivation, to high yielding selections sometimes thought to show less varietal character in the wine. There are about 30 different recognized clones in Australia with observable differences in growth habit, bunch shape and so on. It is quite possible that some clones are better adapted to particular areas and this need to be taken into account when evaluating the variety.

_ The colour of red wines from Pinot Noir is never intense and fruit from hot areas may make uninteresting wines lacking in colour and flavour.The quality and flavour of these wines can also vary considerably with age. In cool areas the wines have a distinctive varietal bouquet with tones of mulberry and rose petals. The best French Burgundies can attain their peak after as much as ten years.

Riesling

riesling

Riesling (rees-ling) is the noble white wine grape variety of Germany, second only to Müller-Thurgau. Although often regarded as the standard by which white wine varieties are judged it is not planted to the same extent in any other country. There are modest areas in France, northern Italy and the eastern European countries. There is a little in Argentina and very little in Chile and South Africa.Most of the so-called Riesling in South Africa appears to be Crouchen. California (747 ha) and Australia (nearly 4000 ha) may well have the largest areas outside Germany and France. In Australia it is often called Rhine Riesling to avoid possible confusion with Hunter River Riesling (Semillon) and Clare Riesling (Crouchen).The tendency to use the name Riesling for other varieties is not confined to Australia and similar distinctions are needed in other countries. Thus it is called Riesling Renano in Italy, Rheinriesling in Austria, Rajnai Rizling in Hungary and Rajnski Rizling in Yugoslavia, mainly to distinguish it from the variety known as Riesling Italico, Welschriesling, Olaszrizling or Rizling Vlassky respectively, which provides much of the Riesling wine from these countries. In California it is called White Riesling, to separate it from Grey Riesling, a grey-fruited form of Bastardo, and there are also such names as Frankenriesling (Sylvaner), Breisgauer Riesling (Ortlieber), Budai Rizling (Kleinweiss) and Banati Riesling (Creaca).

_ Riesling has a definite but not overpowering elegant floral varietal character, which is at its best in cool climates. It can show up well in dry or slightly sweet white wines made from sound grapes, in luscious sweet wines made from grapes affected by noble rot or from the concentrated juice separated from the ice of grapes partially frozen by severe frost. The best of these cool climate white wines can improve with age over several years.

Rkaziteli

rkaziteli

Rkaziteli (ruh-kat-sit-elli or ruh-kat-set-elli) is a local white grape variety from the Tbilisi region of Georgia. It is also grown in Moldavia on the Black Sea coast, where it is known as Gratiesti, and in Bulgaria where the wine is exported to Germany under the name of Sonnenküste. It was imported into Australia in 1971 and a small amount has been planted in the warm irrigated region of the Murray River Valley.

_ In Australia the yields are medium to low. The white wines are well-balanced but generally lack character.

Roussane

roussane

Roussanne (ruh-sahn) is a minor white wine grape variety from the Rhone Valley of southern France, where it is often overshadowed by its more widely planted counterpart Marsanne, with which it is often blended. There were 120 ha planted in France in 1990, mainly in the department of Herault and Vaucluse. It is a permitted addition in several regional appellations in the south of France, including Chateauneuf-du-Pape. It is also grown in the province of Lucca in Italy. Five vineyards in Australia listed Roussanne among their plantings in the 1998 Australian and New Zealand Wine Industry Directory, but the overall area is quite small.

_ Wine produced from Roussanne has been described as fine and complex, with honey and apricot flavours. These white wines age well and develop in the bottle. It is said to add elegance and aroma to the wines of Chateauneuf-du-Pape

Rubired

rubired

Rubired (ruh-bi-red) is a relatively new variety from H.P. Olmo, released in 1958. It is a cross of Tinta Cao, a port variety, and Alicante Ganzin, which has an Aramon × Rupestris rootstock as one parent. This means Rubired has one-eighth of the wild American species Vitis rupestris in its make-up. This has some advantages, such as a degree of resistance to fungus diseases, but also leads to some problems, such as dense foliage and numerous light bunches. Plantings in California reached 5300 ha by 1974, declined to 2773 ha by 1992 then increased to 5345 ha. A few fairly substantial plantings were made in Australia around 1970 but they have been largely grafted over or removed. A related variety, Royalty, a cross of Bastardo and Alicante Ganzin, was released by Dr Olmo at the same time as Rubired. It is reported to be more demanding as to soil type, less vigorous and lower-yielding. Originally planted in California to about the same extent as Rubired, Royalty did not expand to the same degree, reaching only

1200 ha by 1974 then declining to its current level of 222 ha.

_ Wines from Rubired are opaque with a very intense deep-red colour.They have an unusual aroma, which is often found in wines made from varieties with red juice,

but are neutral enough to be blended in small quantities to improve the colour of wines deficient in this respect. Both varieties were originally released for making fortified wines of the port type and Royalty appears preferable for this purpose.

Ruby Cabernet

ruby cabernet

Ruby Cabernet, (ruh-bi kab-er-nay) a cross between Carignan and Cabernet Sauvignon, is a variety bred by H.P.Olmo at the University of California, Davis, and released in 1948. Its major commercial exploitation has been in California, where approximately 3300 ha are planted. The area currently planted in Australia is 2530 ha.

_ The variety was designed for producing high-quality red wines in the hot dry areas of California where Cabernet Sauvignon is not recommended. Unfortunately, very few wines made in these areas have achieved the characteristics of Cabernet Sauvignon, while in the cool areas where it has succeeded its yields are reduced. It has, however, produced some excellent wines at Merbein although the wines may mature more quickly than those of Cabernet Sauvignon. At Merbein, Ruby Cabernet ripens at the same time as Cabernet Sauvignon and has shown no difference in sugar or sugar: acid ratio, suggesting that it should be preferred for that reason.

Sangiovese

sangiovese

Sangiovese (san-gi-o-ve-see) is the leading red wine grape of Italy, in terms of area planted and grapes produced. Because of mixed plantings (trees and vines) the area is not well-defined, but approximately 500 000 tonnes of grapes are produced each year. The variety is thought to originate from Tuscany but it is also recommended for many other parts of Italy. Apart from Argentina, Sangiovese does not appear to have been planted much in other countries. In Australia it was found only as odd vines at Mudgee under the name of Canaiolo, another Tuscan variety. The planted area in Australia is currently 657 ha.

_ Sangiovese is used in many wines of controlled appellation in Italy, sometimes alone, but quite often mixed with three or four other varieties. Perhaps the bestknown of these wines would be Chianti, in which 50–80% of the grapes used are Sangiovese, along with Canaiolo, Trebbiano,Malvasia del Chianti and a little Colorino.The best of the Italian wines have an intense ruby colour, medium tannin and a bouquet reminiscent of

violets. The wines can sometimes have a slightly bitter finish.

Sauvignon Blanc

sauvignon blanc

Sauvignon Blanc (so-vin-yohn blohnc) ranks high among the white wine grape varieties of France. The main plantings are near Bordeaux, where it is used as a minor

but important partner of Semillon. There are smaller plantings in the Loire Valley, where it is used on its own. There would be a few thousand hectares of Sauvignon Blanc in northern Italy and it has also spread to eastern European countries. California has 5884 ha, but most of the so called Sauvignon in Chile is a closely related variety known as Sauvignonasse in France and as Tocai Friulano in Italy. In Australia most of the 2953 ha of Sauvignon Blanc is grown in South Australia with the rest divided between Victoria, New South Wales and Western Australia.

_ In the coolest Australian areas, Sauvignon Blanc produces white wines that are crisp and herbaceous. Varietal character is less strongly developed in warmer areas, where Sauvignon Blanc makes pleasant, fresh, acid wines. It is considered a very desirable component in the white wines of Bordeaux, and similar mixtures of Semillon and Sauvignon Blanc are encountered frequently in Australia. In New Zealand the wines from the Marlborough region have become famous for their distinctive herbaceous flavours.

Semillon

semillon

Semillon (sem-il-on or se-mih-yohn) is the major white wine grape variety of the Bordeaux area of France. A little is planted in Italy and Yugoslavia and perhaps more in the former Soviet Union. California currently has around 500 ha, but the main plantings outside France are in the southern hemisphere. Semillon is the leading white variety in Chile, and there is somewhat less grown in Argentina and South Africa, where it is known as Green grape. In Australia, of the total 6283 ha about three-quarters is growing in New South Wales and most of the rest in South Australia. It proved to be well suited

to the Hunter Valley and became known as Hunter River Riesling. There has been much confusion between Semillon and several other varieties in Australia.

_ In France, Semillon is often affected by noble rot, which concentrates the berry constituents and modifies the flavour. Such grapes are used in the luscious sweet wines of Sauternes and Barsac, while unaffected grapes are used for dry wines. In both cases the Semillon is fermented together with a smaller quantity of Sauvignon Blanc and often a little Muscadelle to add further desirable flavour components. In Australia, Semillon is used for dry white wines which, particularly when yields are not too great, have a distinctive varietal character which lends itself to ageing.

Shiraz

shiraz

Shiraz (shi-rahz) comes from the Hermitage area of the Rhone Valley in France, where it is known as Syrah. One tradition suggests that it was brought to Hermitage from Shiraz in Iran by the hermits, another that it was brought from Syracuse by the Roman legions, but it seems quite likely that it originated in the Rhone Valley. It is sometimes called Hermitage in Australia, but should not be confused with the Hermitage of South Africa which is really Cinsaut. The Petite Sirah of California is a different variety, Durif, which comes from the same part of France where it has occasionally been incorrectly called Petite Syrah. There was a dramatic increase in the area planted to Syrah in France between 1968 and 1988, mainly to add character to wines based on Grenache or Carignan. Australia currently has more than 37 000 ha of this variety in production. A little is grown in Tuscany in Italy and some in Argentina and South Africa.

_ Australia has a particularly good reputation for its Shiraz wines, where it is grown in all viticultural areas and used for all types of red wines. It has proved to be a very versatile variety, producing wines that can be spicy and peppery with good tannin and that develop flavours of blackberry and blackcurrants with age. It is sometimes used alone but is often blended with other red varieties such as Cabernet Sauvingnon.

Solvorino

solvorino

Solvorino (sol-vor-ee-noh) is another white grape variety which is known only from Australia at this stage. It has clearly been in Australia for well over 100 years and may have been one of the varieties introduced by Busby in 1832.Two varieties bred as table grapes have been named Solferino, a white in France from about 1850 and a red in Italy from about 1920. Both are thus too late to be connected with the Australian variety. Solvorino is grown commercially at Roma in Queensland and also occurs as previously

unidentified vines in mixed plantings on two vineyards at Great Western in Victoria. One of these was planted in 1868 and can be traced to earlier plantings in Australia.

_ Although Solvorino has little pronounced varietal character, it appears to be suitable for good standard white wines such as those produced from Chenin Blanc and Colombard

Souzao

souzao

Souzao (suh-zay-oh) is a Portuguese variety, this name being used for it in the Douro Valley where it is ranked in the second highest-quality group for producing port. It is also grown in the Minho region where it is known as Vinhao, and to a slight extent in the neighboring areas of Spain under the name of Souson. It has also become very successful in California and South Africa.

_ The main contribution of Souzao to the wines in which it is used is its excellent deep purple colour. It is equal or superior to some varieties with coloured juice such as Alicante Bouschet or Grand Noir de la Calmette in this respect. It also retains a good acidity and has a strong raisin flavour. For both ports and dry red wines (vinhos verdes) in Portugal it is used in conjunction with different varieties which provide the other desired characters in the wine.

Sultana

sultana

Sultana (sul-tah-nah) is primarily a drying grape but in some seasons, in Australia, more sultanas are crushed for white wine than grapes of any other single variety. In 2003 about 9685 ha of Sultana was used for wine-making in Australia. In California it

is called Thompson Seedless to distinguish it from another variety introduced earlier, erroneously, as Sultana. An even larger proportion of the crop is used for wine in California and there are also districts which specialise in the production of table grapes. In western Europe the variety is known as Sultanine or Sultanina. It seems to have originated in Asia Minor or the Middle East and is grown for dried fruit throughout the area from Greece to Afghanistan and north into the neighbouring republics. There are also small plantings in South Africa and South America.

_ Sultana is more difficult to process for wine than specialised wine grapes because of its firm flesh and lack of seeds. However, it has a good acidity and produces fresh, rather neutral white wines, which are quite attractive on their own and form an excellent base for sparkling wines or for blending with highly flavoured varieties. Lack of seeds and the firm flesh make Sultana attractive as a table grape even at its natural berry size.

Berry size can be increased by various cultural treatments but this results in loss of flavour.

Sylvaner

sylvaner

Sylvaner, (sihl-vah-nah) spelt Silvaner in Germany, was formerly the leading white

wine grape of that country, but in recent years has declined considerably with the rise of newly bred varieties such as Kerner, Scheurebe and Bacchus.The variety may have originated in Austria (although only a small area is planted there) and it can be found under various names through central and south-eastern Europe.There are small plantings in France, California and Australia.

_ Under some circumstances Sylvaner can give a distinctive fruity wine with high acidity, but usually it gives a neutral white wine which is well-suited to blending. One of the recent German varieties,Morio Muskat, which is considered rather highly flavoured for sole use, has found a place as a blending partner for Sylvaner.

Taminga

taminga

Taminga (tam-ihn-gah) is a white grape variety bred by CSIRO Plant Industry at its Merbein laboratory in Victoria. It is a cross of the Merbein selection MH 29-56 (Planta

Pedralba × Sultana) and Traminer.The cross was made in 1970 and the variety released in 1982. Approximately 200 ha have been planted in Australia; mainly in the Murray River Valley.Taminga is a high yielding, late-ripening variety, which produces high-quality wines with a distinctive spicy bouquet. The juice composition has been good with low pH and high titratable acidity.

_ Taminga has been used commercially in Australia to produce a high-quality botrytised sweet wine, and for blending with more neutral-flavoured varieties to improve their flavour.

Tarrango

tarrango

Tarrango (ta-rang-goh) was also bred by CSIRO Plant Industry Division of Horticulture at Merbein. This red grape variety is a cross of the Portuguese port variety Touriga and the ubiquitous multipurpose variety Sultana. Approximately 170 ha of Tarrango have been planted in Australia, mainly in the warmer regions along the Murray River.

_ The wines have a distinctive highly fruity flavour, bright colour and very low tannin. They have a high tartaric acid:malic acid ratio which, combined with low pH, gives excellent colour stability and hue. The wine has also been used successfully as a base for sparkling wine. The raspberry bouquet from Tarrango wines is reminiscent of the Californian Zinfandel and could fill a similar niche in Australia. It has proved quite successful on the United Kingdom market.

Tempranillo

tempranillo

Tempranillo (tem-prah-nil-oh) is one of the most highly regarded varieties in Spain for making red wine. Blended with Carignan, it makes the best wines of the Rioja. In La Mancha it is known as Tinta Fino or Cencibel and is used in the claretes of Valdepenas and Manzanares. In Portugal it is known as Tinta Roriz, and Negretto in Italy may be the same variety. Tempranillo was authorised in 1976 for planting in the Mediterranean region of France. It is an important variety in Argentina, and less in California (308 ha), where it is called Valdepenas. Current plantings in Australia are small, at 216 ha.

_ Tempranillo gives red table wines with good colour intensity and a slightly blue hue, but because of its low acid and alcohol levels it is often blended with other wines such as Grenache. Wines made solely from Tempranillo mature quickly and are ready for bottling and drinking in the year of vintage. In Portugal, as Tinta Roriz, the variety is ranked in the highest-quality group for producing port. The young wines can show light berry fruit characters.

Terret

terret

Terrets (te-ret) are old recommended varieties from the Languedoc area in the south of France.Three colour variants are known – Terret Blanc (white), Terret Gris (grey) and Terret Noir (black) – and chimeras are sometimes seen in all combinations. In Australia there is a small area of Terret Noir in the Barossa Valley.

_ Terret Noir is listed among the varieties used for a number of French appellation wines, including Chateauneufdu- Pape and Cotes du Rhone, but it is unlikely that it would ever be more than a minor component of the wine.Terret Noir alone makes wines that do not have much colour but that are light, fresh and distinctive, capable of combining well with those from more full-bodied varieties such as Mataro.

Tinta Amarella

tinta amarella

Tinta Amarella (teen-tah am-ah-rel-ah) is best known as a port variety. It is widely grown in the Douro Valley, where it is regarded as a good – rather than very good – variety. It seems to be little grown outside Portugal, but is distinctly different from the other common port varieties and it is thought that it may have come from France. It could perhaps have been the Amarot of Landes, listed among Busby’s imports into Australia. The small plantings in Australia are all in South Australia, where this red grape variety is known as Portugal. It is not uncommon as odd vines in plantings of other varieties and this seems to have led to confusion with Malbec: some intended plantings of Malbec have actually been planted with Tinta Amarella.

_ Wines from Tinta Amarella have a good colour and body but no particular varietal or other special character. They could perhaps be used in blending to soften harsh or astringent wines

Tocai Friulano

tocai friulano

Tocai Friulano (toh-kay frih-uh-lah-noh) probably originated in France, where it is known as Sauvignonasse, and appears to be related to Sauvignon Blanc. However, it

would seem more appropriate to use the Italian name of Tocai Friulano, because the variety has almost disappeared from France yet has become very popular in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of Italy, where several thousand hectares are planted.Tocai Friulano is also the preferred name in Argentina. In Chile it has been erroneously called Sauvignon. It is widespread in Australia, but only in plantings of other varieties in Mudgee, the Goulburn Valley and Great Western.

_ The white wines of Tocai Friulano have a delicate but definite floral bouquet and a slight bitterness on the palate, which is appreciated in Italy. The proportion of Tocai Friulano in some Australian plantings may be high enough to influence the character of the wine produced.

Touriga Nacional

touriga nacional

Touriga Nacional (too-ree-gah nah-syunahl) is the most widely planted of the top-quality group of port varieties in the Douro Valley in Portugal. This red grape variety is also grown in other parts of Portugal for other types of wine, but there seems to be very little outside Portugal. There are a few hectares in California and it is probably one of the ‘port sorts’ in South Africa. There is a small amount of Touriga in Australia (82 ha), mostly in South Australia.

_ The pre-eminence of Touriga as a port variety is justified. In Australia it also produces fortified wines with excellent colour, tannin and flavour. The wines can have a light mulberry or black currant bouquet.

Traminer

traminer

Traminer (tram-ih-nher or trah-mee-nher) is another old white grape variety showing primitive characters. It is valued mainly for its strong aromatic character in making white wine and, as there are large clonal differences in this respect, the more aromatic clones are sometimes distinguished as Gewürztraminer. Being a specialised variety, it is not required in large quantities and thus there are modest plantings in Germany, Austria,

France and California. The variety has been in Australia for a long time but only in relatively small quantities (673 ha in 2003).

_ Wines from Traminer grown in hot climates are likely to be undistinguished,

although this is not always the case. Under cooler conditions, and particularly when the berries are infected with noble rot, it can give luscious wines with an intense, spicy varietal character. The Gewürztraminer wines from Alsace in France are perfumed, golden, full-bodied wines that can improve greatly with age

Trebbiano

trebbiano

Trebbiano (treb-ih-yahn-oh) is the Italian name of this white grape variety; it is more specifically known as Trebbiano Toscano to distinguish it from several similar varieties also known as Trebbiano. It is by far the leading grape for producing white wine in Italy, probably because it ripens reliably in most areas of the country – it has no other distinguishing characteristics. It spread into the south of France and from there into the Cognac area when a new variety was needed to take the place of Folle Blanche, which

suffers from bunch rot when grafted. The official French name is Ugni Blanc but in

the Cognac area it is known as Saint Emilion. In South Africa, California and Argentina it is a minor variety. In Australia there are about 490 ha. It has sometimes been known as White Shiraz or White Hermitage, but it does not appear to be in any way related to Shiraz and is not grown in the Hermitage vineyards in France.

_ In a cool climate Trebbiano gives acid wines, excellent for distillation for brandy. In warmer areas it gives fresh neutral wines that blend well with more fruity types. It is an important component of a number of named wines in both France and Italy, including the red wines of Chianti and Cotes du Rhone.

Tyrian

tyrian

Tyrian (tih-rih-an) is the product of a cross between the Spanish wine variety Sumoll and Cabernet Sauvignon. The original pollination was made in 1972 by the late Allan Antcliff at the CSIRO Merbein laboratory. The aim of the program was to produce high-quality red wine grapes suited to Australian conditions. Extensive evaluations were made of Tyrian, Ciena and Rubienne in three wine-growing regions; Coonawarra (South Australia), Avoca (central Victoria) and Sunraysia (northern Victoria).

_ Tyrian wine made from grapes grown in the three regions had a titratable acidity similar to or higher than Cabernet Sauvignon, a lower wine pH and a higher colour density. Sensory evaluation of the wine from each region was carried out by experienced industry tasting panels over several seasons. Tyrian wine from each

region scored equal to or slightly better than Cabernet Sauvignon. It has a very deep colour, with high total and ionized anthocyanins, with rich redcurrant and fragrant berry fruit aromas and spicy flavours. It is full-bodied with a rich palate, high tannins and excellent ageing potential.

Valdiguie

valdiguie

Valdiguie (val-dig-u-ay) was introduced into Australia from California as Napa Gamay. It is a variety which is authorised, but not recommended, for the south of France and is grown mainly in Languedoc and Provence. There are some plantings (258 ha) in California.

_ In France, Valdiguie gives red wines which are regarded as common and uninteresting. They have good colour but are lacking in alcohol and flavour. However, in California it is esteemed for the production of both red and rosé wines.Wines made at Merbein have scored well in blind tastings.

Verdelho

verdelho

Verdelho (vehr-del-oh) is a Portuguese variety grown on the island of Madeira and in the Douro Valley, where it is known as Gouveio. There are also some small plantings in the Loire Valley in France. In Australia there are small plantings in Western Australia, South Australia and New South Wales, with a total planted area of around1600 ha. The name Madeira has sometimes been used for the variety in New South Wales, a possible source of confusion because the same name was erroneously used for some of the Semillon in South Australia.

_ In Portugal Verdelho is used for fortified wines, in white port and as the predominant variety in one of the four types of Madeira. In France it is used for dry white table wine. In Australia it is generally used for white table wines and shows a strong and attractive varietal character with a delicate nutty bouquet. The wines can be golden coloured and

have distinctive tannin on the palate.

Viognier

viognier

Viognier (vih-onyay) is an old variety restricted to the right bank of the Rhone River south of Vienne in France. In the appellation Cote-Rotie it is blended with Shiraz to add perfume to the red wine, but in Condrieu it is vintaged alone to make a dry white wine with a floral scent and a long spicy aftertaste. Chateau Grillet, at the centre of Condrieu, with its 1.6 ha of Viognier, is the smallest vineyard with its own appellation in France – and one of the most famous.

_ Viognier has not been grown extensively in Australia but there has been an increase in interest in this white grape variety and there are currently 541 ha. With its distinctive aroma of dried apricots the wine could be useful as a specialty line in some of the cooler regions of Australia. It has been used to produce a full-bodied sweet white wine in some of the warmer regions of the country with some success.

Zinfandel

zinfandel

Zinfandel (zihn-fahn-del) is the Californian name for this variety, where in 2003 it was the third most widely planted red wine grape after Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. It does far better in warmer regions where it ripens well, and is also becoming established in Australia, South Africa and South America. It has now been confirmed that it is the Italian variety Primitivo, which is grown quite extensively in the province of Taranto. It is also grown in the Dalmatian region of Yugoslavia under the name of Plavac Veliki.

_ Zinfandel should give spicy, full bodied red wines of a bright colour and distinctive varietal character. In California it is recommended that such wines not be blended. Its strong raspberry flavor can sometimes be overpowering to people unaccustomed to the style.

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Food Safety and Quality Previous year Question papers

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Food Safety and quality question paper 2014-15

Food Safety and quality question paper 2015-16

Food Safety and quality question paper 2016-17

Food Safety and quality question paper 2017-18

Food Safety and quality question paper 2018-19

Food Safety and quality question paper 2019-20

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Food safety is must for every household and food business

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Sustainable development goal 3 good health and well being

INTRODUCTION: - The safety of food produced, served & consumed is of utmost importance to everyone, more so to those who habitually eat outside their homes and are unaware of the intrinsic quality of food that is served to them, even though their taste buds approve it.

Food production centers or kitchens provide all conditions necessary for growth of microorganisms, such as food, humidity & right temperature. All of which are conducive to the spread of infection, disease & infestation if not controlled & monitored through strict regimens with respect to hygiene & sanitation practices.

The relationship of safe food & wealth is well established & has been linked to the cultural practices of the country. The problem of getting safe food is more severe in public eating places where large quantity of food is pre-prepared, held & finished on demand for service.

Food safety problems can be tackled at various levels in different ways with training in safety being organized. Training in safety can be organized under 3 distinct categories usually abbreviated as the 3E’s, namely safety education: safety engineering and enforcement of safety.

1. SAFETY EDUCATION

Safety programs and policies can only be effective if the staffs are trained to think and act safety at work for this, educating them in the following areas is necessary.

Teaching safe methods, with particular emphasis on areas of potential dangers, & how these can be guarded against.

1. Demonstrating the use of safety equipment installed in the established and location and use of first aid material.

2. Inculcating in people the ability to recognize the signs of hazard around them, in colleagues and equipment e.g. – unwell person or an unusual sound from an equipment.

3. Teaching staff the legal implication of non-adherence to safety procedures.

SAFETY EDUCATION

• Should start during induction of the employee to the establishment.

• Is effective by formation of safety committees in the establishment.

• Should include giving info. about legal and financial implication of accidents.

• Should be done using audio-visual aids discussion, bulletin board, weekly safety theme.

2. SAFETY ENGINEERING

This involves the building in of safety features in the structure of the establishment in the equipment, furniture and fittings, and their proper arrangements within the space’s equipment should be selected with care to ensure safety in design that can make it possible to maintain sanitation of parts that come in contact with food.

3. ENFORCEMENT OF SAFETY

That means implementation or practice safety rules need to be enforced by rule, law or custom and practice. Also, by

Discipline at work

1. Close supervision of all activities in vulnerable areas and at peak hours

2. Closing all switches for fuel supply and water taps when not in use.

3. Immediate attention to repair of leaks and regular maintenance and servicing of equipment’s to ensure optimum operation

Definition: - food safety is defined as keeping food safe to eat at every stage of (purchasing, receiving, storage, preparing, cooking, holding, cooling, reheating, and serving) handling as it passes through the flow of food from farm to table.

Thus, food safety is the protection of food product from unintentional contamination (means cross contamination)

FOOD HAZARDS

According to 2005 FDA food code, a hazard is a biological, chemical, and physical property that may cause a food to be unsafe for human consumption

1. BIOLOGICAL HAZARD

Include bacterial viral and parasitic microorganisms’ bacteria: e.g., bacillus cereus, campylobacter jejuni, clostridium botulinum, E. coli, salmonella spp, shigella spp. The majority of biological hazards are bacteria that can be controlled through time, temperature, acidity and water activity. Some bacteria from spores that and highly assistant and may not be destroyed by cooking and drying.

• Viruses can exist in food without growing, but they can rapidly reproduce once they are on a living host, most typically a human being. Viruses can best be controlled by good personal hygiene, because that limits the transmission of viruses via human contact or common food contact e.g., hepatitis A and E, rotavirus, nor virus, reo virus.

• Parasites also need a host. They are mostly animals – host specific. What they can survive in humans. Adequate cooking or freezing destroys parasites. Special attention to foods such as pork, fish, and bear, they are known to carry parasites. E.g., taenia spp, trichinella spiralis.

2. CHEMICAL HAZARDS

Chemical hazards also cause food borne illness. Chemical hazards may occur naturally or may be introduced during any stage of food production. Natural occurring chemicals can be found in some species of fish or shellfish some plant foods and mushrooms e.g., some chemicals added to food also make them unsafe. These include sulphites, sodium nitrates, mono sodium glutamate or lead, copper environmental additives (fertilizers pesticides) and cleaning agents (sanitizers, lubricants) Tetrodoxin (fish), mycotoxin like aflatoxin (corn), patulin (apple juice) paralytic shellfish poisoning (psp).

3. PHYSICAL HAZARDS

Any physical material or foreign object not normally found in a food that can cause illness and injury it may result from contamination carelessness, mishandling and implementing poor procedures at many points. From harvest to consumers. e.g., Glass, wood, stone, metal, fragments, bone, plastic.

Food hygiene

Food hygiene may be defined as the sanitary science which aims to produce food that is safe for the consumer and of good keeping quality. It covers a wide field and includes the rearing, feeding, marketing and slaughter of animals as well as the sanitation procedures designed to prevent bacteria of human origin reaching foodstuffs.

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Types of Food and Beverage service outlets

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RESTAURANT

A restaurant implies service at the table. It may be platter to plate or pre plated. Restaurants are again sub divided into various types:

SPECIALITY RESTAURANT/ THEME / ETHNIC RESTAURANT

Speciality Restaurant- Concentrates on one special cuisine i.e. One particular type of food.

Eg- Sea food restaurant.

Theme Restaurant- Where the décor of the restaurant is based on a particular theme? Eg-Theatre restaurant.

Ethnic Restaurant- Refers to a perticuler race of people.Ex-Chinese restaurant.

Features

1. Open only for lunch and dinner- lunch is from 12pm to 3.30 pm and dinner is from 7.30 pm to 11.30 pm.

2. Special exotic dishes are served

3. Highly Priced Menu-

-- High Investment

-- Business hour is less

-- Platter to plate service

4. Low turnover for covers

5. High average check (A.P.C.) - Highly priced menu and less number of guests so the average check OR the Average Per Cover is high

A.S.P. – Average Spending Power

6. Cover Charge- It is the charge put on a guest for being at the cover or using the cover.

Cover – the optimum space required by a person to dine. The cover on the table is 15”- 17” in depth and 24”-27” in width. Depending on the hotel’s policy there may or may not be cover charge. The charge may be hourly basis or per table or for few days (festive days)

7. Dispense Bar

Gangway – The space required by the waiter or service personnel around the chair to serve or attend guests at the table.

COFFEE SHOP-

Features

1. 24hrs in operation- ideally it is open for 24hrs but at times it may not be depending on the hotel policy. May be closed for cleaning

2. Multi cuisine- serves more than one cuisine

3. All meals- From morning tea to dinner and even late night service. There are two sets of menu card in a coffee shop- Breakfast menu card and the main menu card with timings (the meals are time specific).

4. Economically priced- The food served in coffee shop is not cheap but compared to other F&B outlets it is economically priced

5. Pre plated service-

6. High turnover-

7. Dispense Bar- family restaurant

A coffee shop generally has 3 shifts for normally 9 hours

MORNING SHIFT: 6:00 AM TO 2:00 PM

AFTERNOON SHIFT: 2:00 PM TO 10:00 PM

NIGHT SHIFT: 10:00PM TO 6:00AM

Note-Restaurants generally have guest bookings whereas Coffee shops generally do not have guest bookings.

BAR

Features

1. Sells alcoholic beverages, also non- alcoholic beverages and snacks

2. Entry restricted area- On the basis of age and time.

3. Rules vary from state to state

4. Timings are from 11am to 11pm. The last order time is 15mins before closing time. With extended hour service drinks can be served till 2a.m. Liquor are not sold on dry days, ex 15th august, 26th January

5. Bar are of 2 types-

Display bar-

It is the bar which has display of alcohol and glasses, drinks are prepared in front of the guest. Direct sale is made through the bar.

Dispense bar-

It is the bar which is situated in the back area and mainly used for storage and service of drinks in food and beverage outlets.

6. Cozy comfortable environment with soothing music and dim lighting. The tables in the bar are round with no edges

7. Service at the table and even at the bar counter

8. Bartender/ Barman- Can be of prime attraction for going in a Bar. He should be skilled and must possess good communication skill.

PUB (PUBLIC HOUSES)

It is a place to dine with beer. It is an english concept where beer along with authentic english foods are served like steak, shepherd’s pie etc. early days there would be symbols like Bear head or Lion head on top of the entrance gate so that on seeing that people would recognize that that was a PUB.

BANQUET

The origin of the word banquet both is either from the Italian word “Banchetto” or French word “Banquette” and in both the cases it means benches. The concept is to do anything together. Banquet can be termed as a functional catering where we celebrate any occasion together, cater to a large number of people within a specific time.

Largest Banquet: Hosted by Emile Loubet the famous mayor’s banquet. , 25th September 1900. 22,295 mayors attended the function, entertained at Tuileres garden in Paris waiters covered a distance of 7 km on bicycle.

Features

1. Highest revenue earning in Food & Beverage

2. Caters to a large number of people at a time – if possible under the same roof

3. Types of Function-

FORMAL GATHERINGS- are among people for some official purpose or any other serious purpose where the guests have to follow many protocols. For example State banquet (when the head of the state calls for any meeting). In such parties there is a head table arranged with odd numbers of chairs so that the chief guest can sit in the middle. Seating arrangements are made according to respective names of the guests and they are escorted to their seats. The food is served at the table.

INFORMAL GATHERINGS- are among friends and relatives where everyone knows each other. The food is served mainly in buffet system.

4. Customized menu and facilities- The food served is multi cuisine. Facilities like microphone needed or hall decoration etc.

Basis of charging

Room/Hall Charge- A

Food Charges- B+ taxes per head or pax

Facilities- C

(If the guests buy the liquor from the hotel and get served in the hotel he/she will be charged with service tax and other taxes.

If the guest buys liquor from outside and consume in the hotel then they have to pay certain amount as service charge that is known as corkage)

Total the guest has to pay= A+ B×tax+ C

Suppose the expected number of guest is X, then the guaranteed number of guest will be 10% less of X

If less amount of guests turn up then food charges will be charged on the guaranteed number of guests otherwise the food charges will be charged on the basis of expected number of guests.

5. Outdoor Catering Service

OTHER FOOD & BEVERAGE OUTLETS

1. GRILL ROOM: Basically grilled food items and dishes are served.Generally grilled over fire. People may get the view of food being fired.

2. BARBEQUE: food cooked generally meat items over open charcoal fire. Barbeque is served in open places:-

-Poolside-Terrace

-Lawns

-Gardens

3. CAKE SHOP: If a hotel has a bakery outlet, they can sell their products from these stalls.

4. VENDING MACHINE: Automatic dispensing machines- aerated beverage, coffee, tea etc. installed in cafeteria, airlines, railways etc.

5. SNACKS BAR: Areas where snacks are served at counter service

6. KIOSK: Stalls opened for specific items like chocolates, soft drinks, books, flowers etc., generally at kerbside, shopping mall, railways, airways etc. A kiosk has three open sides and one closed side.

7. Discotheque: is an entertainment venue or club with recorded music played by Disc jockeys through a PA system, rather than an on-stage band serving alcoholic as well as non-alcoholic beverage along with light food items.

8. BYO Restaurant

BYO are restaurants and bistros which do not have a liquor license.

9. Destination Restaurants

A destination restaurant is one that has a strong enough appeal to draw customers from beyond its community. Example: Michelin Guide 3-star restaurant in Europe, which according to the restaurant guides is "worthy of a journey”.

10. Delicatessens Restaurant

Restaurants offering foods intended for immediate consumption. The main product line is normally luncheon meats and cheeses. They may offer sandwiches, soups, and salads as well. Most foods are precooked prior to delivery. Preparation of food products is generally simple and only involves one or two steps.

Permit Room

They are generally found in restaurants and in hotels existing in the dry states like Gujarat. In a restaurant there is a specific area where one can serve alcoholic beverages. The restaurant cannot pour alcoholic beverages an area outside this.

Same set of rules and regulations are applicable to the permit room as applicable to the bar. Prior license have to be secured from the appropriate authority before starting a permit room.

Home delivery/ take away

This has been a recent trend over the past few years. As the name suggests, these outlets deal with delivery of food till your doorstep. These are stand-alone restaurants (kitchen only) that emphasize only on quick preparation of food & its delivery. There is no seating arrangement available here. The staff may contain chefs, order taker, cashier and delivery boys. The order taker takes orders over the phone or of walk in guest, notifies the kitchen and hands over the food packets to guest or delivery boys. He also might take the cashiering responsibilities at the counter, which might be overlooked by the manger. Normally such outlets do not charge for home delivery. Food is provided in plastic containers, aluminum foils, plastic bags etc. These outlets must not be confused with restaurants, which provide services of home delivery.

Coffee bars- these are basically outlets which serve single beverage, the service can be formal or informal depending on the outlet. Small tidbits of food items can be serviced. Generally magazines or newspapers are provided to engage the guests.

Chai bars- these are same as coffee bars serving single beverage.

Drive inns- these outlets can be a part of food joint, hotel or restaurant which have a open counter, where travelers who are passing by the outlet can get their food packed

Quick service restaurant (QSR)

These are same as other restaurants but the service is fast, the quality of food and the service quality are maintained at par. the service may be informal and the food can be served through counters. the dishes which can be cooked quickly are generally included,

Bistro- these outlets are very old.Originally started in Persia. Basically these are small restaurant serving economically priced dishes. Bistros generally have home cooked dishes cooked in robust earthy dishes and the preparations are slow. These have been developed from the basement kitchens where tenant used to lodge and have food. menu is very simple, small and prepared in quantity.

Brasserie- these are French origin.Meaning a restaurant with a relaxed, upscale setting which serves single dishes and other meals.

A brasserie can have professional service, printed menus and traditional white linen. These are open all days of week.

Drive through- these food outlets provide facility of purchasing without leaving their vehicle. The concept started in USA.

Orders are placed through microphone and picked up through window, the cars are generally lined one after another and as the order is ready at window they passes by.

The orders are generally brought by server called carhop.

These out lets have signs which shows customers how to move and where to park their vehicle.

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FOOD SPOILAGE & FOOD PRESERVATION

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Foods undergo deterioration or spoilage from the time they are harvested, slaughtered, or manufactured. Foods undergo physiological, chemical, and biological changes & make them unfit for human consumption.

Numbers of causes are responsible for food deterioration. These include:

• Micro-organisms

• Activities of enzymes present in food

• Insects

• parasites

• rodents

• temperature

• moisture

• Oxygen, light, and time

These factors are not isolated in nature. At any one time, many forms of spoilage may take place depending upon the food and environmental conditions.

• Micro-organism: bacteria, yeasts & moulds spoil food after harvesting, during handling, processing & storage. The micro-organisms are found everywhere & are always present to invade the flesh of animas & plants. When there is a cut in their skin or if the skin is weakened by disease or death.

• Food enzymes: enzymes present in plant & animal foods continue to be present and are even intensified after harvest & slaughter. Enzymes are responsible for facilitating many changes during storage such as changes in colour, texture and flavour e.g. ripening of tomatoes, tenderizing of meat on ageing are desirable, but if proceeded too far can result in food spoilage if not halted at the

• appropriate time. The enzymes need to be inactivated by suitable method at appropriate time to prevent food spoilage.

• Insects, parasites & rodents: insects are destructive to cereals grains, fruits & vegetables. The loss of food due to insects’ destruction varies from 5-50% depending upon the care taken in the field & storage. Insects are generally controlled by fumigation with ethylene oxide & propylene oxide. Parasitic food spoilage occurs in some foods. Pigs eat uncooked food waste; the parasitic nematode penetrates the pig’s intestine & finds its way into pork. The live worms can infect man if the pork is not thoroughly cooked. Entamoeba histolytica is responsible for amoebic dysentery. This organization contaminates food when raw human excreta are used as fertilizers for crops. Infected water and poor hygiene also spread the parasites. Cooking kills most of these parasites. Rodents contribute substantially to food spoilage rats cockroaches rodents urine and drippings harbour several kinds of disease producing bacteria and rats spreads such human disease as typhus fever, plague, typhoid fever etc.

• Temperature: - Heat and cold contribute to food spoilage if not controlled. The rate of chemical reaction doubles itself for every 10o C rise in temperature. Excessive heat brings about protein denaturation, destroy vitamins, break emulsions and dries out food by removing moisture. Freezing and thawing of fruits and vegetables destroy their structure.

• Moisture: - Foods with high % water spoil fast. Perishable foods have a high-water content. Control of moisture in foods is thus very important. From the point of view of their preservation.

• Oxygen, Light and Time: - air and oxygen bring about several changes in food components such as destruction of food colour, flavor vitamin A & C and other food constituents. Oxygen is to be excluded from in the course of processing while deareation, vacuum packing or flushing containers with nitrogen or carbon dioxide. Light destroys vitamin B2, A and C. it also deteriorates many food colours. Foods may be protected from light by impervious packing or keeping them in containers that screen out specific wavelengths. Food’s spoilage is time dependent. The larger the time, the greater the destructive influences.

• Food Safety in The Home: - in order to avoid food spoilage in the home, standards of hygiene should be maintained. Personal hygiene & kitchen sanitation practice should be maintained.

SPOILAGE OF CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS

The exterior of harvested grains retains some of the natural flora plus contamination from soil, insects & other sources e.g.

• Of bacteria that infested Pseudomonadaceae, micrococcus, lactobacillus.

• Washing & milling reduces microorganisms.

• Blending & conditioning increases contamination.

Cereal products

• Wheat flour – bacteria – bacillus, sarcina, micrococcus, moulds – aspergillus, penicillium.

• Corn meal – moulds – fusarium, penicillium.

• Bread – a freshly baked loaf is practically free of viable microorganisms, but mould spores contaminate during cooking & before wrapping slicing by knives also contaminates.

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

• Milk contains few bacteria when it leaves the udder of healthy cow.

• Contamination starts from the animal especially the exterior of the adjacent areas. Bacteria found in manure, soil & water may entre from this source.

• Microorganisms from milking machine, when milking by hand.

• Contamination from dairy utensils & milk contact surfaces like milk oil or milking machines, bulk milk cooler.

• Hands & arms of the milker, flies, the air around milk parlour.

• Other sources tanker-truck, transfer pipes, sampling utensils, separators, homogenizers, coolers, glass bottles.

MILK PRODUCTS

• BUTTER: - microorganisms from churner, from water used in its washing, old cream & packaging material.

• Dry milk, evaporated milk & sweetened condensed milk may be contaminated from special equipments used in their preparation.

• Cheese – it is contaminated from air, brine, tanks, shelves & packaging material.

• Ice cream – organisms may be added to ice cream in the ingredients.

MEAT

The healthy inner flesh meat contains few or no microorganisms although they have been found in lymph nodes, bone marrow & even flesh. Normal slaughtering practices would remove the lymph nodes from edible parts. Contamination comes from external sources during bleeding, handling, and processing. During bleeding, skinning, and cutting the main sources of microbes is the exterior of the animals (hide, hoofs, and hair) and the intestinal tract.

• Knives, clothes, air, hands, and clothing of the workers can serve as intermediate source of containments.

• During handling contamination comes from cart, boxes, and contaminated meat, from air and from personals.

• Grinders, sausages stuffers, slicing, casing and ingredients are the sources.

• In home refrigerators, containers used previously to store meats act as a source.

E.G., moulds – Cladosporium, geotrichum, penicillium. Bacteria – pseudomonas, bacillus, clostridium.

EGGS: - Most freshly laid eggs are sterile but the shells of some become contaminated by faecal material from the hen, by the lining of the nest, by wash water, by handling the materials in which eggs are packed.

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

• Spoilage occurs during storage, transportation while waiting to be processed, washing, mechanical damage, processes such as trimming, peeling, cutting, coring add to contamination.

CANNED PRODUCT

Spoilage occurs by chemical, biological or both.

• CHEMICAL: - by hydrogen swell resulting from the pressure of hydrogen gas released by action of acid of goods on the iron of the cane, time, temperature of storage, tinning imperfection, poor exhaust etc.

• BIOLOGICAL: - by microorganisms, survival of organisms after administration of the heat treatment, leakage of the container after the process permitting the entrance of microorganisms.

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FOOD BORNE DISEASES

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Food borne illnesses are conditions of distress following the ingestion of food or drink. Such illnesses may strike one person or hundreds of persons in a single outbreak, and may be only mildly and temporarily unpleasant, or fatal. They are microbial and non – microbial in origin.

There are 11 major types of food borne illnesses: -

1. Indigestion

2. Food intolerance or food sensitivity

3. Algae toxins

4. Metal poisons

5. Phyllotoxins

6. Manufactured agricultural & household chemicals

7. Zootoxins

8. Protozoan disease

9. Infestation

10. Microbial infections

11. Bacterial & fungal food intoxications.

1. INDIGESTION: - is acute food borne distress which follows wilful neglect or violation of good eating habits. Symptoms of distress, acute abdominal pains, and vomiting.

2. FOOD INTOLERANCE OR SENSITIVITY: - food sensitivities are the food related reactions termed allergy, immunological hypersensitivity – i.e., manifestation of the antigen – antibody reactions following ingestion or contact with food hypersensitivity to milk, wheat flour & eggs is common.

3. ALGAE TOXINS: - Three divisions of algae namely: -

• Pyrrophyta (dinoflagellates) e.g., Gonyaulax Catenella, G. monilata.

• Cyanophyta (blue – green algae) e.g., anabaena flos – aquae, microcystis aeruginosa.

• Chrysophyta (golden brown algae) e.g., prymnesium parvum. All the organisms occur both in fresh & marine waters, but almost invariably incidents of shellfish poisoning occur in seawater.

4. METAL POISONS: - Both mineral and organic material toxic to man & animals are widespread in environment. They occur in foods, often as normal constituents. The prominent intoxicating mineral elements are arsenic, lead, mercury, and selenium

5. PHYLLOTOXINS: - many plants produce substances with pharmacological and toxic effects on humans and animals e.g.

• ANTIENZYMES: - plant - soya beans, legumes, potato. Action – trypsin.

• CARCINOGENS: - plant – senecio. Action – liver damage.

• GOITROGENS: - plant – cabbage and some fruits. Action – enlargement of thyroid.

6. Manufactured agricultural & household chemicals: - insecticides, pesticides, growth regulators, fungicides, and growth simulators e.g. cryolite, lead arsenate, DDT(dichloride – diphenyl – tri – chloroethane). Most chemicals are looked upon as adulterants of food. Regulatory control dictates the care that must be exercised in their handling & use, time of application & residues permitted.

7. ZOOTOXINS: - Zootoxins are associated only with freshwater & marine foods. It is microbial deterioration of the fish after capture.

8. PROTAZOAN DISEASE: - e.g., Amebiasis – or amoebic dysentery. Its prevalence is influenced by cultural practicelike by disposal of human waste in such a way that food & water are contaminated. Effective sanitation is necessary to control amebiasis.

9. INFESTATIONS: - Helminthic infestations are illness caused by cestodes (parasitic, highly segmented flat – worms), trematodes (parasitic, unsegmented flatworms) and nematodes (long, cylindrical, unsegmented worms). Many infestations are associated with foods characteristic of specific geographic areas. all food borne infestations entre the human through food & water, it is also transferred during the handling of the meat. E.g., Ascariasis, enterobiases, taeniasis.

10. MICROBIAL INFECTIONS: -

INTESTINAL ILLNESSES

I. streptococci: - it is caused by streptococcus phylogenies. It is responsible for acute, pus forming infections. Common vehicles for spreading the disease are raw milk & cream contaminated by infected farmers.

II. Salmonella: - caused by Salmonella. Salmonella, or enteric fever lies affected humans for centuries. The symptoms are fever, septicemia, and gastroenteritis. The agent of thyroid is Salmonella typhi. Symptoms – high fever incidence occur through contamination of well water, milk & foods.

III. Shigellosis: - shigellosis of bacillary dysentery is caused by organism belonging to genus shigella. Commonly associated with milk & ice cream.

IV. Cholera: - it is transmitted by contaminated water, fruits, vegetables, raw/ half cooked fish. Caused by vibrio cholera

NON-INTESTINAL ILLNESSES

(i) Tuberculosis: caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Sputum, nasal exudates, unpasteurized milk, uninspected meat & poultry. Food related TB is less often respiratory than gastrointestinal, skeletal, and glandular. & Muscular.

(ii) Listeriosis: - caused by listeria, monocytogenes.

(iii) Q fever: - caused by Coxiella Burnette. Out breaks seen in meat packaging plants. Causes fever, severe pneumonia.

11. BACTERIAL & FUNGAL FOODBORNE INTOXICATION: - Although many different organisms can grow in foods, only few produce toxins that make the food dangerous to eat among bacteria e.g., are staphylococcus aureus, clostridium perfringens, c. botulinum & bacillus cereus. Among fungi e.g., Claviceps purpurea fusarium, aspergillus penicillium.

(i) S. Aureus – it resides in the mucous of nose & throat region. The bacteria leave the nose & month in nasal secretions. During coughing & sneezing. It causes osmoles, boils, abscesses, meningitis, and pneumonia. S.A. produces enterotoxins (toxins). It causes irritation of intestinal tract, cramps, coma, and death.

(ii) Botulism: - It is neuroparalytic disease causes by consuming foods contaminating toxin of clostridium botulinum. Faulty vegetable processing, fish & FP, fruits, milk & MP.

(iii) Ergotism: - Caused by Claviceps purpurea, a fungal pathogen of rye, barley, wheat and produces a toxic product called ergot. Fungal tissue grows on the grains having alkaloids which have toxic characteristics.

(iv) Aflatoxins: - Caused by mold aspergillus flowers. A wide variety of commodities. Like almonds, bakery products, millet, peanuts, wheat flour etc. symptoms are jaundice, hepatitis, hypertension, carcinogenic in nature.

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Selection criteria of food and beverage service equipment

January 31, 2022, 2:09 am

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Furniture- tables, chairs, sideboards

Linen- table cloths, buffet cloth, slip cloth, runners, baize cloth, tray cloth, waiter’s cloth, and napkins

Crockery- quarter plate, half plate, full plate, soup plate, soup bowl, cup and saucers, demitasse, and so on

Glassware- all glasses

Tableware

a) Flatware/cutlery- spoons, forks, knives

b) Hollowware- coffee pots, teapots, water jugs, entrée dishes, sugar bowls, creamers, butter dish and so on

Miscellaneous– bud vase, menu card holder, cruets, ashtrays, toast rack, sauce boats, asparagus tongs, caviar knife, oyster fork, corn on the cob holder, snail dish and so on

Disposables– paper napkins, disposable plates, place mats, doilies, coasters, table rolls, gloves, etc.

Chair heights-

· Height of the chair (from floor to the seat):18”

· From floor to the top of the chair: 39”

· Depth of the chair: 18”

For comfortable dining the standard height of the table is 30”

Table sizes and their capacities
S.no.	Sizes in inches	shape	covers
1	30	square	2
2	36	square	4
3	30x48	rectangle	4
4	30x72	rectangle	6
5	36 diameter	round	4
6	48 diameter	round	5
7	60 diameter	round	8

Baize cloth- in fine dining restaurants tables are permanently covered with thick woolen cloth or felt which is termed as “baize”.

The purpose of baize is to

1. Deaden the noise of cutlery and crockery while placing them on the table.

2. Protect table top from heat from the dish.

3. Give grip to the table cloth and to prevent it from slipping.

4. Protect the wrist of the customer while dining.

5. Also acts as cushion for customer.

Baize should never be exposed to the guest; it must always be covered with a clean table cloth.

Table cloth

Considering the minimum fall of 9” from the edge of the table,

E.g., to cover a table of 2’6” square table, one needs a cloth of minimum size of 48”x48”. It is calculated as:

Width of the table 2’6” which is =30”

Add: fall of table cloth on two sides: 2”x9” =18”

=48”

Table cloth size calculation
S.no.	Table size	Calculation	size
1	2'6" square	30"+ (2x9)=48"	48"x48"
2	3' square	36"+ (2x9)=54"	54"x54"
3	2'6"x4'	30"+(2x9)=48"	48"x66"
		48"+(2x9)=66"

Napkin sizes:

There are two standard sizes

18”x18” for lunch

20”x20” for dinner

Crockery-includes all items of earthenware or chinaware such as plates, cups and saucers, pots, vases, and so on

Types of chinaware available in market

Earthenware- it is made of 25 per cent ball clay, 25 percent kaolin or clay, 15 percent china stone, and 35 per cent flint.

The advantage is that it is cheaper, but it is easily chipped or cracked and much heavier than bonechina

Bone china- it is made of 25 % china clay, 25 % china stone, and 50 % calcium phosphate.

It is strong and translucent. It is beautiful and expensive

Porcelain-it is made of 50 % china clay, 25 % quartz, and 25 % feldspar. It is vitreous and translucent with a grey or blue tinge. It is used in oven to tableware dishes.

Stoneware-it is hard, tough, and vitreous crockery, fired at a high temperature. It is heavy and available in bright colours, suitable for restaurants where bright colour crockery is required.

Selection of crockery: the crockery chosen should be attractive and must blend with the décor of the service area. If a hotel has many restaurants, each outlet may have crockery of different colours and patterns to suit their décor, provided there is a guarantee for availability of the same design for replacement in future.

The following points should be considered-

1. Plates should have complete and even glaze.

2. Pattern of design should be under glaze so that it is protected and does not wear out with repeated washing.

3. Suitable for multiple purposes, for example, using for soups and breakfast cereals, half plates for appetizers, fish, vegetables, sweet.

4. Stackable up to 30 plates or saucers in one pile.

5. Suitable for machine washing.

6. Plates should have rolled edge to resist chipping.

7. Light weight.

8. Suitable for microwave oven.

9. Resistant to high temperatures of 85 degree Celsius.

It is advisable to go for simple design or plain crockery as it does not get outdated and replacing will be quick without any problem or huge investment.

Crockery sizes

Quarter plate- 6”

Soup plate-8”

Soup bowl-250 ml

Half plate- 8”

Full plate- 10”

Tea cup and saucer-250-300 ml

Demitasse and saucer- 100 ml

Selection criteria for cutlery

a. Metal-

· capital available

· Profile of the restaurant

· Type of market segment

· Cost of cleaning and maintaining

b. Type-

· Menu items

· Type of cover setup

· Style of service

c. Quantity-

· seating capacity

· Rate of seat turnover

· Washing method

· Storage facility

d. Pattern-

· availability of replacement

· décor

The Cover:

A cover is a space allotted on the table for the cutlery, crockery, glassware and linen for one person.

It is a space required by one person, to place cutlery, crockery and glassware for a meal.

The size of the cover is 24”x15”. Keeping this size in mind, table capacities are calculated.

The length of the cover is 24” which is calculated as given below:

Diameter of side plate =6”

Diameter of full plate =10”

Space for placing cutlery =8”

=24”

The width of the cover is 15” which is calculated as follows:

Width of the full plate =10”

Space from the edge of the table to the handle of cutlery =1/2”

Space for water goblet =4 ½ “

=15”

Requirements of a cover:

1. Each cover should be well balanced.

2. All cutlery and other table appointments should be placed at least ½ “away from the edge of the table.

3. Knives and spoons should be placed towards the right of the plate and all forks on the left, except for the butter knife.

4. The cutting edge of the knives should always face the plate with the exception of the butter knife; the water tumbler should be at the tip of the large knife.

5. The butter dish should be on top of the fork along with a butter knife and on an underplate.

6. The napkin should either be placed in the center of the cover or on the side plate or in the glass.

7. Cruet set should be placed on top of the cover.

Standard types of covers

Table d’ hote cover

· Side plate with side knife

· Water goblet

· Fish knife and fish fork

· Soup spoon

· Large knife and large fork

· Desert spoon and desert fork

· Cruet set

· Sauce and oil pots

A la carte cover- the cover is order specific.

SIDEBOARD/DUMMY WAITER/SERVICE CONSOLE/SERVICE STATION

The other names used for a sideboard are work station or service console or service station or dummy waiter

The style and design of a sideboard varies from establishment to establishment and is dependent upon:

· The style of service and the food and beverage on offer

· The number of service staff working from on sideboard

· The number of tables to be served from on sideboard

· The amount of equipment it is expected to hold.

It is essential that the sideboard is of minimum size and portable so that it may be easily moved if necessary.

If the sideboard is too large for its purpose it is then taking up space which could be used to seat more customers.

The top should be of a heat resistant material which can be easily washed down.

If a hotplate is to be used then it should be inserted in the top so it is level with the working top.

After service the sideboard is either completely emptied out or restocked for the next service.

The material used in the makeup of the sideboard should blend with the rest of the décor and theme.

The actual lay up of sideboard depends firstly on its construction

-the number of shelves and drawers for tableware, etc.

-and, on the type of menu and service offered.

Therefore the lay-up in every establishment could vary slightly, each being suited to its own needs and style of service and presentation.

It is suggested, however, that in each particular establishment the sideboard be laid up in the same fashion.

if this is done the staff get used looking for a certain item in a certain place and this facilitates speedy service which is essential.

1) Service spoon and forks

2) Sweet spoons and forks

3) Soup spoons, tea spoons, coffee spoons

4) Fish knives and forks

5) Joint knives

6) Side knives

7) Fish plates

8) Side plates

9) Half plates

10) Coffee saucers

11) Full plates

12) Salvers

13) Dirty linen

14) Check pads

15) Assorted condiments

16) Ashtrays

17) Water jugs

18) Bread basket and butter

19) Hotplate

20) Trays

↧

FOOD ADDITIVES

February 2, 2022, 11:26 pm

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Food additives are any substance not naturally present in a food but added during its preparation and remaining in the finished product. Food additives are all substances added to basic food products. They include anything added during the production, processing, treatment, packaging, transport & storage of a food. Food additives are used to decrease the risk of contamination by certain microbes, maintain and improve nutritional quality, enhance appearance, increase self-life, reduce waste, or contribute to convenience. The PFA gives the definition and list of permissible additives along with the amount permitted. The substance to be used as food additive should be of good grade and must meet the PFA or B-S specifications. With the present degree of urbanization, it would be impossible to maintain food distribution without the processing and packaging with which many additives are involved. The convenience food revolution would not be possible without food additives.

PRESERVATIVES

Chemicals such as salt, alcohol and acetic acid have been used for several hundred years for preserving meat and vegetables and the pickling of food. These processes rely on reducing the water activity or the pH in the food to inhibit the growth of pathogenic organisms.

Food preservatives

COLOURS

Colour additive is any dye. pigment or substance that can impart colour when added or applied to a food, drug, cosmetic or to the human body.

• Dyes dissolve in water and are manufactured as powders, granules, liquids, or other special purpose forms. They can be used in beverages, dry mixes, baked goods, confectionary, dairy' products, pet foods and a variety of other products.

• Lakes are the water-insoluble form of the dye. Lakes are more stable than dyes and are ideal for colouring products containing fats and oils or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve dyes. Typical uses include coated tablets, cake and doughnut mixes, hard candies and chewing gums.

Originally many colour additives are natural pigments. They gave place to synthetic dyes obtained from coal tar.

NATURAL COLOURANTS

• Anthocyanins: The anthocyanins comprise a diverse group of glycosidic derivatives of the 2- phenyl benzopyrylium structure. Anthocyanins impart blue, violet and certain red colours to many edible fruits and vegetables.

• Carotenoids and xanthophyl: The carotenoids. Aliphatic and alicyclic unsaturated terpenes composed of eight isoprene units are the most widespread of natural colours in both the plant and animal kingdoms. Carotenoids are oil-soluble colours.

• xanthophyl comprise a group of yellow carotenoid pigments closely related to the carotenes but having keto and/or hydroxy substituents. The most important commercial carotenoids are β-carotene

• Bixa Orellana which contains bixin as the main component; saffron which contains crocetin, (J- carotene and zeaxanthin; paprika extract which contains capsanthin and capsorubin; Xanthophyll extracts from leaves; carrot extracts with (5 and a-carotenes; canthaxanthin from the pink edible mushroom; Cantharellus Nectria cinnabarina; and red palm oil with lycopene and lutein. No adverse effects have been observed with natural colourants.

• Butacaines: The red beet root. Beta vulgarus contains red and yellow pigments of the class betalaines. Red violet betacyanin and yellow betaxanthins are water soluble, quaternary ammonium derivatives of 4-vinyl-5. 6-dihydropyridine-2, 6-dicarboxylic acid.

• Caramel: It is a complex polysaccharide of unidentified chemical structure prepared by heating a food grade carbohydrate like, glucose, sucrose, or starch in the presence of a catalyst—acetic sulphurous or citric acids or bases such as ammonium, calcium, and sodium hydroxides.

• Curcumin: Turmeric, a yellow brown substance widely used as a spice and a natural colourant is derived from the rhizome of curcuma Ionian L. It contains about 1-5 per cent of curcumin as the principal colourant.

PLANT TISSUE CULTURE

In vitro pigment production is an alternative to colour synthesis. Plant tissue culture is a means of growing plant cells in a supportive environment outside of the organism and it can be used to produce useful chemicals such as pigments. Extractions are simple and strong flavours can be eliminated

• Annatto: It is a yellow carotenoid preparation obtained from the seeds of the plant Bixa Orellana. The pigment in annatto is a mixture of bixin. the mono-methyl ester of a dicarboxylic carotenoid compound and norbixin, the dicarboxylic derivative of the same carotenoid as in bixin. Annatto has been used in foods especially dairy products. The presence of two carboxylic acid groups allows the preparation of both water and oil-soluble preparations. The cis forms are redder in colour than the yellow transforms and the degradation compound, so a series of yellow to red colours are available.

• Saffron: Dicarboxylic carotenoid. crocetin is found in saffron together with its digestiobioside ester crocin. Saffron is obtained from the stigma as of the flowers of crocus sativus. Saffron provides both colour and flavour. • Cochineal and related pigments: The term cochineal refers to red colouring material enaminic acid, is the colourant in cochineal. It is extracted from the dried crushed bodies of female D. Coccus just prior to egg-laying time. The pigment may constitute as much as 22 per cent of their dry weight.

• Carmine can be used in powder form to colour a variety of foods. It can be used in a solution of ammonia to colour foodstuffs such as baked products, jams etc. From kermes insect, aglycone kermesic acid is extracted. This also gives like cochineal red.

• Alkanet is a related pigment extracted with alcohol from the roots of Alkanna tinctoria Tausch. The red pigment is only slightly soluble in water but readily soluble in organic solvents. It is used in ice-cream.

• Monascus: Yellow to red colourants from microbial species offer considerable advantages since they can be produced in any quantity and are not subject to the vagaries of nature like cochineal.

• Biliproteins from algae: It is divided into two main groups—red phycoerythrin and the blue phycocyanins. The bilin portion of both groups is an open tetrapyrrole containing a skeleton system similar to chlorophyll and haemoglobin. It is soluble in either water or alcohol used is used in chewing gum.

The following synthetic colours are permitted to be used in foods under PFA rules.

Colour	Common name
Red	Poncean 4 R
	Carmoisine
	Erythrosine
Yellow	Tartrazine, sunset yellow FCF
Blue	Indigo carmine
	Brilliant Blue FCF
Green	Fast Green FCF

• These colours shall be pure and free from harmful substances, so all food colours and colour preparations shall be sold only under BIS certification mark.

• The synthetic colours are permitted to be used only in certain foods with declaration on the label. The maximum quantity permitted is 200 mg/kg. Some of the foods in which colour is permitted are ice-cream, biscuits, cakes, sugar, boiled confectionery, sweets and savouries, fruit syrup, fruit squash fruit drink and beverage, soft drink, soft drink concentrate, jam, carbonated water and non-carbonated ready to serve beverages and synthetic syrup.

• The pink dye Rhodamine B, Orange RN II and Blue VRS are carcinogenic and causes pathological lesions of vital organs like kidney, spleen, and liver. Metanil yellow causes degeneration of reproductive organs, sterility, stomach trouble and cancer. Hence, these dyes are prohibited.

FLAVOURING AGENTS

The flavours of most fruits and vegetables are produced by very complex mixtures of aldehydes and esters of organic alcohols and acids, with a range of essential oils with complex terpenoid structures.

Many of the synthetic compounds used are ‘nature-identical’, that is. they occur naturally in foods or are formed in cooking processes. A closely related group of additives are called flavour enhancers of which the best known is monosodium glutamate

SWEETENERS

Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth decay and diarrhoea.

Artificial sweeteners:

Are used in food industry as a small concentration of these substances is required to sweeten the product. An ideal sweetener is as sweeter than sucrose, has a pleasant taste with no after taste, is colourless, odourless, readily, soluble, functional, and economically feasible. It also is non-toxic, does not promote dental cavities and is either metabolised normally or excreted from the body unchanged without contributing to any metabolic abnormalities. Ideal is multiple sweetener approach. When multiple sweeteners are used together, they have a synergistic effect. They reduce the cost and improve the product taste and stability, since the combination often overcomes the limitations of the individual sweeteners.

*Type*	*Sweetener*
Caloric sweeteners	Sucrose
	Fructose
	Glucose
	Lactose
	Invert sugar
	Caramel
	High-fructose syrup
Low-caloric sweeteners	Sorbitol
	Mannitol
	Lactitol
	Maltitol
	Xylitol
Non-caloric sweeteners (Synthetic)	Cyclamate
	Acesulfame-K
	Alitame
	Aspartame

Non-caloric sweeteners (Synthetic)	Saccharin
	Sucralose
	Dulcin
Non-caloric Sweeteners (Natural;	Neohesperidine DC
	Glycyrrhizin
	Phyllodulcin
Non-protein) Non-caloric Sweeteners (Natural. Protein)	Sativoside
	Thaumatin
	TMin
	Curculin
	Monellin
	Miraculin
	Brazzein
	Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii

EMULSIFIERS AND STABILISERS

The texture of many processed foods depends on the fact that they are emulsions or foams and if they are to retain these textural properties they must be stabilised in someway. The additives used for this purpose are surfactants, amphipathetic molecules which act at the interfaces of the two phases in the food. The most commonly used emulsifiers are mono and diglycerides and phospholipids such as lecithin.

Stabilisers are usually macromolecules which form a dispersed matrix or gel into which other smaller molecules can be incorporated. Substances used as stabilisers and thickeners are polysaccharides, are given in Table.

Type	Examples
Exudates	Gumarabic. Gum tragacanth. gum karaya. gum ghatti
Extracts	Agar, alginate, pectin, carrageenan
Flour	Guargum. locust bean gum.
Synthetic	Xanthan gum
Chemical	Carboxymethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose.

Chelating agents or Sequestestrants: These are compounds that form complexes with metal ions. When metallic ions are released due to hydrolytic or other degradative reactions, they are free to participate in reactions that lead to discolouration, oxidative rancidity, turbidity, and flavour changes in foods. Addition of chelating agents results in the complexing of these metal ions and thereby the stabilisation of foods. Citric acid and its derivatives, phosphates, and salts of Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid (EDTA) arc the most popular chelating agents used in foods. Chelating agents are not antioxidants, they serve as scavengers of metals which catalyse oxidation. They, however, are antioxidant synergists.

ANTIOXIDANTS

One of the most important types of deterioration that can occur in a foodstuff is the oxidation of the fats to produce unpleasant odours which can be detected at low levels by the human senses. The details of antioxidants are discussed in chapter on “Food Presents".

FLOUR IMPROVERS: - These are a group of additives which are added to flours used in bread making either to improve the elasticity of the dough and lead to greater volume of loaf or because they improve the stability of the crumb and slow the process of staling.

Government Regulations

The use of food additives is subjected to government regulation throughout the world. These regulations prescribe the food in which specific additive may be safely used, a specified maximum limit the manner of addition, directions on labelling, packaging requirements. The central government in the ministry of health has a central committee for food standards which reviews from time to time the situation regarding additives based on available scientific data.

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FOOD CONTAMINATION & FOOD ADULTERATION

February 10, 2022, 12:31 am

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FOOD CONTAMINATION & FOOD ADULTERATION

Food adulteration of food stuff is commonly practiced in India by the trader. Adulteration defined as the process by which the quality or the nature of a given substance is reduced to

• • The addition of a foreign or an inferior substance.

• • The removal of vital element.

According to PFA Act

Food Adulteration includes

1. Intentional addition, substitution or abstraction or substances which adversely affect the purity and quality of foods.

2. Incidental contamination of foods with deleterious substances such as toxins and insecticides due to ignorance, negligence, or lack of proper storage facilities.

3. Contamination of the food with harmful insects, micro-organism like bacteria, fungus, molds etc. during production, storage, and handling.

TYPE OF ADULTERANT

Adulterants may be intentional or unintentional. The former is a wilful act on the part of the adulterator intended to increase the margin of profit. Incidental contamination is usually due to ignorance negligence or lack of proper facilities.

1. INTENTIONAL ADULTERANTS

Intentional adulterants are sand, marble, drip, stone, mud, chalk powder, water, mineral oil and coal tar, die the adulterants cause harmful effects on the body.

Name of the food article

Adulterant

Simple method for detection of adulterant

Asafoetida

Soap stone (pumice

stone) or other

earthy matter

Starch

Chalk

Shake with water, soap stone or other earthy matter will settle to the bottom.

Same tests as in the case of milk.

Shake sample with carbon tetrachloride.

Bajra

Infested with

Ergot

Long irregular black grain indicates ergot.

In 2 per cent salt solution ergot floats.

Rubbing with fingers and roughness indicates presence of maize flour.

Shake portion of sample with cold or warm water. The water becomes yellowish and on treatment with few drops of concentrated HC1 turns magnets red.

Papaya seeds are shrunken, oval in shape and greenish brown or brownish black in colour and have repulsive flavour quite distinct from the bite of black pepper.

Light Berries or papaya seeds float on spirit or carbon tetrachloride.

Chilli powder

Brick powder.

Soap stone

Artificial colour

sediment at the bottom of glass confirms the presence of brick powder or sand. Smooth white residue at the bottom indicates the presence of soapstone.

Water soluble artificial dye can be detected by sprinkling a small quantity of chilli or turmeric powder on the surface of water contained in a glass tumbler. The soluble dye will immediately start descending in colour streaks.

Cinnamon

Cassia bark

Cinnamon barks are very thin and can be rolled. Cassia barks are thick and stiff.

Cloves

Volatile oil extracted

Cloves

Exhausted cloves can be identified by its small size and shrunken appearance. The characteristics pungent taste of genuine cloves is less pronounced in exhausted cloves.

Coffee

Chicory

Starch

Tamarind or

date-seed

Powder

Gently sprinkle the coffee powder sample on the surface of water in a glass. The coffee floats over the water but chicory begins to sink down within a few seconds. The falling chicory powder particles leave behind them a trail of colour due to large amount of caramel they contain.

Make decoction of the coffee, decolourise it by adding potassium permanganate and then add a drop of iodine solution. Blue colour indicates presence of starch. Sprinkle the suspected coffee powder on white blotting paper and spray over it 1 per cent sodium carbonate solution.

Tamarind and date-seed powder will, if present, stain blotting paper red. Shake powder with 2 per cent sodium hydroxide or washing soda solution. Formation of reddish colour indicates tamarind seeds.

Common salt

White-powdered

stone, chalk

Stir a spoonful of simple salt in a glass of water. The presence of chalk will make the solution white and other insoluble impurities settle down.

Coriander powder

Common salt

To 5 ml of sample add a few drops of silver nitrate. White precipitate indicates adulteration.

Cumin seeds

Grass seeds coloured

with charcoal dust

Rub the cumin seeds on palms. If palms turn black adulteration is

indicated.

Dal

Kesari dal

Clay, stones.

gravels lead

chromate.

metanil yellow

Add 50 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid to dal and keep on simmering water for about 15 minutes. The pink colour if developed indicates the presence of kesari dal.

On visual examination to see wedge like shapes of Kesari dal. Visual examination will detect these adulterants.

Shake 5 grains of dal with 5 ml of water and add

a few' drops (yellow) of hydrochloric Acid. A pink colour shows the presence of colour.

Edible oils

Argemone oil

Mineral oil

Castor oil

Add concentrated nitric acid to a sample and shake carefully. Red to reddish brown colour in acid layer indicates the presence of argemone oil.

Take 2 ml of edible oil and add an equal quantity of N/2 alcoholic potash. Heat in boiling water bath for 15 minutes and add 10 ml of water. Any morbidity shows the presence of mineral oil.

Dissolve some oil in petroleum ether in a test tube and cool in ice salt mixture. Presence of turbidity within 5 minutes indicates the presence of oil.

* This test is not for minute traces.

Food grains

Hidden insect

infestation

Take a filter paper impregnated with ninhydrin (1% in alcohol).

Put some grains on it and then fold the filter paper and crush the grains with hammer. Spots of bluish-purple colour indicate presence of hidden insects’ infestation.

Ghee or

Butter

Vanaspati

Mashed potato,

sweet potato and

other starches.

Take about one teaspoonful of melted ghee or butter with equal quantity concentrated hydrochloric acid in a test tube and add to it a pinch of cane sugar. Shake well for one minute and test it after 5 minutes. Appearance of crimson colour in lower (acidic) layer shows the presence of 'vanaspati’. This test is specific for sesame oil which is compulsorily added to vanaspathi. Some of coal tar dyes also give a positive test.

Add a drop of iodine solution. Iodine which is brownish in colour turns to blue if starches are present. Iodine solution is prepared by dissolving 2.5 g of iodine crystals and 3 g potassium iodine in water to make solution of 100 ml.

Honey

Molasses (sugar and

water)Commercialinvert sugar(mixture of

fructose)

Jaggery

A cotton wick dipped in pure honey when lighted with a matchstick burn. If adulterated the presence of water will not allow the honey to burn. If it does, it will produce a crackling sound.

1 Fiehe’s test. Mix 5 g of honey with 10 ml of ether in a mortarusing a pestle. Decant the ether extracts into a China dish. Repeat twice or thrice. Allow the ether to evaporate at room temperature. Of freshly sublimed resorcinol in concentrated HC1 (1 g of resorcinol resublimed in 5 ml of conc. HC1). Immediate appearance of cherry red colour indicates invert sugar.

2. Aniline chloride test. Take 5 ml of honey in a porcelain dish. Add Aniline chloride solution (3 ml of aniline and 7 ml of 1:3 HC1) and stir well. Orange red colour indicates presence of sugar.

Jaggery powder

sugar

Chalk powder

Metanil yellow

Add few drops of hydrochloric acid. Effervescence indicates adulteration. Stir a spoonful sample of sugar in a glass of water. The chalk settles down.

Same test as for other substances.

Khoa

Starch

Add tincture of iodine. Indication of blue colour shows the presence of starch.

Milk

Water/Deflated milk

Starch

a. The lactometer reading should not ordinarily be less than 1.028.

b. The presence of water can be detected by putting a drop of milk on a polished vertical surface. The drop of pure milk either stops or flows slowly leaving a white trail behind it; whereas milk adulterated with water will flow immediately without leaving a mark.

c. Add tincture of iodine, indication of blue colour shows the presence of starch.

* This test is not valid if milk is skimmed, and thickening material is added.

Milk. Curd

Cane sugar

Add 0.1 g of resorcinol and 1 ml of concentrated HC1 to 10 ml of the sample and boil—A rose red colour indicates the presence of cane sugar.

Mustard seeds

Argemone seeds

Examine under magnifying glass. Seeds more blacken, rough and non-uniform irregular round show presence of argemone seeds. Mustard seeds have a smooth surface. The argemone seed have

Powdered

spices

Grit, talc sand colour

grainy and rough surface and are blacker hence Shake up a little of the sample in a dry test tube with 5 ml of carbon tetrachloride (CC14). Allow to settle sand, talc and grit will sink to the bottom leaving spices on the top.

Pulses

(green peas)

Colour dye

Sample is kept immersed in water for about half an hour and stirred. Colour separation indicates adulteration.

Rava

Iron fillings

By moving a magnet through its iron fillings can be

Rice

Marble or other stones

A simple test is to place a small quantity of rice on the palm of the hand and gradually immerse the same in water. The stone chips will sink.

Saffron

Dyed tendrils of maize cob

Genuine saffron will not break easily like artificial one. The colour dissolves in water if artificially coloured. Pure saffron when allowed to dissolve in water will continue to give its saffron colour so long as it lasts.

Sago

Sand or talcum

On burning leaves no ash. Adulterated sago will leave behind appreciable quantity of ash.

Silver leaves

Aluminium leaves

On ignition, genuine silver leaves bum away completely, leaving glistening white spherical ball whereas aluminium leaves are reduced to ashes of dark grey blackish colour. The silver foil is very thin and if crushed between two fingers, crumbles to powder Aluminium foil is comparatively thicker and only breaks to small shreds when passed similarly.

Take silver leaves in a test tube. Add dil HC1. Appearance of turbidity to w'hite precipitate indicates the presence of silver leaves. Aluminium

leaves react with HC1 to leave blackish grey fumes.

Soft drinks

Mineral acid other than phosphoric acid

Soak a strip of filter paper in a 0.1 per cent solution of metanil yellow and then dry. Dip one end of paper into the soft drink. Wetted portion turns violet if mineral acid in present.

Sugar

Chalk powder

Dissolve in a glass of water, chalk will settle down at the bottom.

Supari

Colour and saccharin

Colour dissolves in water. Saccharin gives excessive and lingering sweet taste.

Sweet meat.

Ice-cream,

Sherbet

Metanil yellow (a non-permitted coal tar dye)

Extract colour with Luke-warm water from food article. Add few drops of conc. Hydrochloric Acid. , If magenta red colour develops, the presence of metanil yellow is indicated.

Tea leaves

Exhausted tea or black or bengal Gram dal husk with colour

a. Tea leaves sprinkled on wet filter paper would immediately release added colour.

Spread a little slaked lime on white porcelain tile or glass plate. Sprinkle a little tea dust on the lime. Red, orange or other shades of colour spreading on the lime will show the presence of coal tar dye. In the case of genuine tea, there will be only a slight greenish yellow colour due to chlorophyll which appears after some time.

Turmeric

Metanil yellow, yellow clay

Take a teaspoon full of turmeric powder in a test tube. Add a few drops of conc. hydrochloric acid. Instant appearance of violet colour which disappears on dilution with water. If the colour persists, presence of metanil yellow is indicated. Mix powders with water and allow to stand for some time. The yellow' clay will settle down at the bottom leaving turmeric on the top.

Wheat, bajra and other food grains

Ergot (a fungus containing a poisonous substance)

Dhatura-seeds

Purple black longer size grains in bajra show the presence of ergots.

Dhatura seeds resemble chilli seeds with blackish brown colour which can be separated out by close examination.

Wheat flour

Maida

When dough is prepared from resultant wheat flour, more water has to be used and chapathies prepared out of this will blow out. The normal taste of chapathies prepared out of wheat is somewhat sweetish whereas those prepared out of adulterated wheat flour will taste insipid.

Chalk powder and lime powder

Treat sample with hot dilute HC1. The bubbling of gas indicates carbon dioxide from chalk or other carbonates.

2. INCIDENTAL ADULTRATION

• Contamination of foods with harmful micro-organisms

Raw foods such as meat. fish, milk and vegetables grown on sewage are likely to be contaminated with harmful microorganisms. These are generally destroyed during cooking or processing of food. Some of the micro-organisms may survive due to inadequate heat processing. Further, some of the foods, if consumed in the raw state, may cause food poisoning. Recent studies have shown that food grains, legumes and oil seeds when stored in humid atmosphere are infected by pathogenic fungus which can cause serious illness. The pathogenic micro-organisms commonly contaminated foods and responsible for causing serious illnesses are listed in the Table 14.2 and are briefly described.

• Metallic contamination

Lead is a toxic element and contamination of food with lead can cause toxic symptoms. For example, turmeric is coated by illiterate manufacturers in India with lead chromate. Lead brings about pathological changes in the kidneys, liver and arteries. The common signs of lead poisoning are nausea, abdominal pain, anaemia, insomnia, muscular paralysis and brain damage. Fish caught from water contaminated with mercuric salts contain large amounts of mercury. The organic mercury compound methyl or dimethyl mercury is the most toxic. The toxic effects of methyl mercury are neurological. When the brain is affected, the subject becomes blind, deaf and paralysis of the various muscles make him a cripple. The other elements which are toxic in small doses are cadmium, arsenic, antimony, and cobalt.

Studies conducted (2006) by scientists at Industrial Toxicology Research Centre, Lucknow, found that silver foil used for sweets and in pan masala contain carcinogenic nickel, lead, chromium and cadmium. Silver metal is transformed into the thin foil used in sweets by workers in small factories who fill the metal in a leather bag and beat it with a wooden club. No purification process is carried out before making foil. Silver foil with a purity of 99.9 per cent can be used in edible form

A survey conducted by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) also found high levels of pesticide residues in bovine milk and metals arsenic, cadmium and lead in infant formula canned products and turmeric.

Indian chocolates are high in nickel, a trace metal that could cause cancer. This is present in soil, water, hydrogenated vegetable oil and even in milk. Through milk or other ingredients chocolates have nickel. According to WHO, the normal consumption is 100-800 meg of nickel every day. This may not affect our well-being. There are no Indian standards nickel could accumulate in the body over a period.

Other incidental adulterants

a) The Argaemone mexicana is frequently found growing in brassica fields and if proper care is not taken during cultivation its seeds get mixed with those of brassica and the oil expressed contains also argemone oil. Its presence in edible mustard oil is injurious and outbreaks of epidemic dropsy are probably due to it.

b) Wood smoke which contains chlorodioxins is toxic and contaminate the food coming in contact with the smoke.

c) Pests such as rodents and insects introduce into the food a high degree of filth in the form of excreta, bodily secretions and spoilage micro-organisms. Leptospirosis is caused by the contamination of urine of rat. Infected urine of rat contains spirochaetes which can penetrate the skin or mucosa of man. Effective means of food quality can be achieved by legislative measures, certification schemes and public participation and involvement in the programme.

d) The most common incidental adulterants are pesticides. DDT and malathion residues may be present on the plant product much more than what is considered as safe. The maximum permissible residue allowed for DDT, malathion is 3 ppm and for pyrethrum it is 10 ppm.

e) Chemicals like DDT are absorbed by the small intestine when ingested. These then adhere to the fatty tissues—the toxins usually pile up in the fatty tissues of such vital organs as the thyroid, heart, kidney, liver, mammary gland and testes and damage these organs. They can be transferred from the umbilical cord blood to the growing foetus and through breast milk. In children the disease apart from crippling them inhibits their growth.

This incidental poisoning can be prevented by:

• regular market surveys to warn people of dangerous build-up of toxins in food.

• stepping up the integrated pest-management programme to teach farmers to use pesticides judiciously. No* spraying should be done a week, before harvest.

• taking up on a war footing the control of pests using their natural predators.

• using safer pesticides like synthetic pyrethroids or malathion.

• by washing vegetables thoroughly before cooking.

Packaging hazards

Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride and allied compounds are used to produce flexible packaging material. While this method of packaging is very convenient, it must not contain any noxious thermal breakdown products which could be injurious to health. Further, temperatures used for heat sealing, or sterilisation should not result in formation of toxic residues. It has been observed sometimes that in foods like pickles the acid and oil could attack the plastic packaging material and create a health hazard. To avoid such incidences, it is essential that only food-grade plastic packaging materials be used for packaging foods. New adulterants

The newer adulterants include the legumes such as imported toxic lentils marketed as local lentils, local legume like Subabul (Lencana leucocephala) seeds, veterinary drug residues in milk, flours made from mouldy wheat, strychnos potatorum, a forest produce in arecanut, animal fat in bakery products and industrial contaminants like orthonitro aniline in vanaspati.
· The Lalhyrus sativus, Lens Culinuris(lentils) and Vicia sateva are three closely related species containing unusual amino acids.
· Turkish lentil which was sold in India as Red gram (Cajanas cajan) dal and Australian vetch (Vicia sativa) sold as Indian masur dal (Lens culinaris) Vicia sativa is a weed found among other edible legumes and used in India only for feeding farm animals. Vicia sativa contains the toxic amino acid p- cyanoalamine, Turkish yellow lentils contain the diaminopropionic derivatives.
· Ginger is used widely in culinary practice in India in the fresh or dry states. Dry ginger is often coated with a blue-coloured dye ultramarine blue to prevent insect infestation. It is an inorganic pigment used as laundry whitener. In USA and Canada, its use is restricted to addition in salt meant for animal consumption.

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Guest Handling- Intoxicated guest in BAR

May 11, 2022, 10:36 pm

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≪ Previous: FOOD CONTAMINATION & FOOD ADULTERATION

HOW TO INTERVENE WITH A POTENTIALLY INTOXICATED PATRON IN BARS

Some guests are sitting in the bar at a corner table, and it’s a busy hour, they entered at 7:00 pm and now its 9:00 pm. It’s been quite long drinks are being served continuously, as a server in the bar you found that one of the guest is getting potentially intoxicated and you could see signs of loud speech, ordering drinks frequently, stumbling and aggressive behavior.

As a server what possible course of action should be taken in such situation.

Write your answers in comments.

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Do it your self 1 | DIY

May 20, 2022, 10:10 pm

≫ Next: Microorganism in food

≪ Previous: Guest Handling- Intoxicated guest in BAR

Match the following

a) Melon 1) cheese

b) Angles on horseback 2) proprietary sauce

c) Caviar 3) oyster

d) Crepe suzette 4) vegetable

e) Camembert 5) honeydew

f) Huitre 6) roe

g) Asparagus 7) savoury

h) Sunny side up 8) pancake

i) Tabasco 9) fried egg

j) Crepe suzette 10) Epinard

k) Asparagus 11) Worcestershire sauce

l) Omelette 12) vegetable

m) Tomato juice 13) pancake

n) Spinach 14) hash brown potatoes

Write description of the following dishes

Oeuf en cocotte
Cote de porc charcutier
Escalope de veau a l'anglaise
Beef stroganoff
Poulet a la king

Order taking

Ambrosia Restaurant

Entrées

Beetroot cured salmon gravalax with sour cream, pink grapefruit &

petite herb salad

Smoked duck salad with watercress, orange, caramelised walnuts, sticky

shallots & blackberry balsamic glaze

Pressed chicken & ham hock terrine, wrapped with baby leeks, rhubarb

compote with sourdough toast

Jerusalem artichoke and cep soup with black truffle shavings

Ravioli of oxtail with crushed squash, beurre noisette & merlot vinegar

Vegetable terrine of asparagus, baby summer vegetables, aubergine

dressed with red & yellow tomato concasse

Main Courses

Snapper fillet scented with floral herbs, on a bed of Parmesan and

saffron mash, tomato concasse, sorrell & lemon beurre blanc

28-day aged grilled rib eye of beef with horseradish mash, steamed

spinach, baby root vegetables & a rich burgundy jus

Roasted breast of Gippsland free-range chicken, potato puree,

pot-roasted vegetables, celeriac crisps and Madeira jus

Rump of King Island lamb with rosemary and butternut squash mash,

spring greens & star anise jus

Spiced glazed confit of duck with coriander & mango couscous &

plum coulis

Risotto of red wine, radicchio and taleggio dressed with Italian white

truffle shavings

Side Dishes

Home-made chips /Honey-roasted parsnips /Creamed spinach /

Dressed leaf salad

Each guest on table 6 is having the following.

Cover No.

1. Beetroot cured salmon gravalax with sour cream Snapper fillet scented with floral herbs Creamed spinach

2. Vegetable terrine of asparagus, baby summer vegetables 28-day aged grilled rib eye of beef with horseradish mash (R)

3. Vegetable terrine of asparagus, baby summer vegetables Rump of King Island lamb Creamed spinach

4. Ravioli of oxtail with crushed squash Spiced glazed confit of duck with coriander & mango Home-made chips.

Write up the order for table 6 on the docket supplied. Use the bold abbreviations from the menu.

Time:		Table:
Name:		Pax:

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Microorganism in food

January 8, 2023, 9:42 pm

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MICRO ORGANISMS IN FOOD

General characteristics

• Bacteria are minute unicellular plant like microorganisms. The length of bacterial cell is about 1um and smaller than this in diameter. Bacteria are classified according to the shapes of their shells. Cocci is spherical in shape, bacilli, elongated cylindrical forms, spiral, they can pass through natural pores of foods. Bacterial spores are seed like and they are more resistant to most processing conditions than yeast or mold spores.

• Bacteria with few exceptions, cannot grew in media as acid as those in which yeast and mold thrive. They multiply by cell division. Under favourable conditions bacteria can double their number every 30 min. Some bacteria cannot tolerate oxygen (anaerobes) and some require oxygen for growth (aerobes). Some can grow in an atmosphere devoid of oxygen but manage also in air (facultative anaerobes)

Microorganism

Types of microorganism

Bacteria

Types of bacteria

Structure of bacterial cell

Forms of bacteria

Reproduction of bacteria

Bacterial growth cycle

The Lag phase

The log phase

The stationary phase

The decline phase

Types of fungi

YEAST

Yeast are unicellular plants(fungi) widely distributed in nature and they grow well in slightly acid medium in the presence of sugar and water they are found in fruits, cereals and other food containing sugar. They are also found in soil, air, on the skins and in the intestine of animals. They are larger than bacteria. The individual cell length is about 10um, and the diameter is about 1/3rd of this size. Most yeast is spherical and ellipsoidal. They have been used for centuries for leavening of bread and to bring about fermentation of food usage they can be harmful to foods if they bring about undesired fermentation.

MOULDS

Moulds are multicellular filamentous fungi having a fuzzy or cottony appearance Cohen they grow in foods. They are larger than yeast. They are strictly aerobes and require oxygen for growth and multiplication. They grow slowly than bacteria. Moulds frequently threw under conditions of acidity or of osmotic pressure. Those are inhibitory to most bacteria. That is why they are found on jams and jellies moulds require less free moisture for growth than yeast and bacteria the absence of bright light and presence of stagnant air favour their rapid development.

VIRUS

The viruses are extremely small ranging from 25-250um in size. although they share some characteristics with living organisms, they are not truly alive. They replicate inside a living cell using its host cells metabolism.

There are no of ways by which viruses may be transmitted most common of this is via direct or distance contact i.e., from host to host by touching or through short distance in air. Indirect transmission may occur. Also, via contact with inanimate objects (fomites), by the bite of certain infected insects (vector) by water and food (vehicles) There are variety of ways in which viruses May entre foods.

1. Primary when the food product already contain virus at the time of slaughter or harvest or

2. Secondary when it occurs during processing, storage or distribution of a food.

PARASITES

Ingestion of raw or semi-cooked food by humans can lead to infection by parasites. Food like pork, beef, lamb, shellfish, vegetables act as vehicles for infection.

The organism contaminated food when raw human excreta are used as for crops. Infected water poor hygiene also spread parasite. Cooking kills most of these parasites.

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH OF MICROORGANISMS

TEMPERATURE

Microorganisms have optimum growth temperature. They do not grow above or below a specific range of temperature. Bacteria can grow and survive under more extreme conditions than those tolerated by any of the molds or yeasts.

Bacteria are classified as: -

• Psychrophiles – 68o-77oF (45oF) (0-20oC)

• Mesophiles – 98oF (20-45oC)

• Thermophiles – 110oF (45-60oC)

• Moulds can grow and can survive under more extreme conditions than can the yeasts.

WATER

Microorganisms grow in aqueous solutions. A term, “water activity (aw)” express the degree of availability of water in foods. Foods with high water content deteriorate fast. Leafy vegetables, fruits, meat, milk deteriorate rapidly. Fruits & vegetables can give of moisture from respiration & transpiration even when packed in a moisture free package. This moisture is enough for microorganisms to grow.

PH (HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION)

Moulds, yeast grow best at PH on the acidic side of neutrality as do some bacteria. Many species of bacteria grow at PH which are at neutrality or slightly on alkaline side. Extreme PH for bacteria

NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF MICROBES

Microorganisms especially bacteria vary greatly from species to species. In the presence of some inorganic salts some bacteria can utilize the nitrogen in air to form proteins and carbon dioxide in air to obtain energy they also use lactates as source of energy. Moulds and yeast like bacteria require basic elements – carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sodium, Sulphur etc. as well as vitamins & other organic compounds.

OXYGEN REQUIREMENT

Some bacteria are aerobic that is they require oxygen for growth. Some both presence and absence (facultative aerobes/ anaerobes) bacteria that do not require oxygen – anaerobes Molds & yeast require.

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